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UNITED STATES OF AMERICA. 



HELPS FOR 



UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



A MANUAL FOR THE USE OF 



EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL 



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COMPILED FROM VARIOUS SOURCES. 



MILTON BRADLEY CO., 

Springfield, Mass. 



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Copyrighted, 1890, 

BY 

MILTON BRADLEY CO., 
Springfield, Mass. 



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ppB;a6E. 



The special characteristic of the common- school education of to-day is 
object teaching, a declaration of independence, in a marked degree, of 
the text-book, a frequent substitution of things that can be handled for 
the printed forms which merely represent those things. Hence it happens 
that very few teachers in this generation are content to use books alone. 
Most of them require objects in addition to the text-books. As soon as 
the rule is established in any school that objects must be studied as well 
as books a demand is created for material properly prepared for system- 
atic use. But it is not always an easy matter for the teacher to know 
where to get this material, or how to use it to advantage. 

As manufacturers of school aids and material which has been accepted 
and adopted all over the Union and in various foreign lands, having many 
years of experience in the business and being in constant receipt of prac- 
tical suggestions from progressive teachers, it has occurred to the publish- 
ers that "A Manual for the Teachers of Ungraded Schools," telling how 
to use this material, must be widely welcomed. 

In thus dedicating this work we do not assume that such teachers lack 
native intelligence, or education, or aptness for their work, or that they are 
necessarily behind the times. It is always the teacher who makes the 
school, not the superintendent, school-board, school-house, furniture or 
appliances. President Garfield said that for him it "would be a universi- 
ty to sit on a log with Mark Hopkins at the other end." And there are 
many successful workers in paths that never have and never will be 
"graded." 

We do maintain, however, that the teacher of the ungraded school has 
more to contend against from one year's end to the other than the average 
teacher under the graded system. She often feels herself to be "com- 
pletely in the dark" concerning the theories and methods of what is called 
the "new education." Being located, it may be, at a distance from all 
schools that are graded, compelled, perhaps, to work month after month 
without intelligent supervision or helpful suggestions from anybody, de- 
prived of the thousand and one useful appliances which do so much to 
make the city school-room attractive, seldom allowed to attend a gather- 
ing of fellow-teachers or visit other schools, it is not strange that such 
teachers often find their lot a discouraging one. 

At least four departments of instruction are being carried on simultane- 
ously in the lowest grades of our best primary schools. Language Work, 
Form Study, the Teaching of Color and Number Work. Each of them 
should be given an important place in the ungraded school, and for this 
reason they will be defined and explained in detail in the followi,ng pages. 



IV PREFACE. 

While they cannot be treated simultaneously on paper the reader should 
remember that in the school-room they go on together, hand in hand, 
neither preceding nor following one another. 

These departments do not of themselves make a school course. They 
prepare the way for Drawing, Geography, History, Physiology, Elemen- 
tary Science, Physical and Manual Training, and, in fact, lay the founda- 
tion for all education, no matter how extended. It is the province of this 
book to treat of as many of these branches as seem to be within reach of 
the ungraded school and that require the use of material for studying 
them to the best advantage. The different studies and kinds of materiaJ 
treated are classified throughout the work under such general names as 
pass current with modern educators, and near the end mention is also made 
of various books which will prove helpful to almost any teacher studying 
them aright. 

That very many things are attempted in the primary grades of the city 
schools, compared with the old-fashioned methods of fifty years ago, when 
Webster's "blue-back" speller reigned without a peer as the text-book for 
primary education, is apparent to the most casual observer. These things 
are generally rated as "Busy Work," evidently out of deference to the 
idea that a certain low-caste individual always "finds some mischief still" 
for the idle fingers of both big and little people. It is not mere activity, 
however, which the teacher wishes to encourage, but occupation with de- 
velopment. Therefore in commending a series of school occupations it 
should be possible to show that they have some logical relation to each 
other. Such a relation is claimed for the occupations employing the ma- 
terial which we propose to describe. It is not expected that every teacher 
who reads these pages will undertake to give instruction in all the branch- 
es or to use every kind of material mentioned here. The publishers have 
simply aimed to present a comprehensive scheme from which each teacher 
can choose much that is adapted to his or her particular flock. 

Teachers often find it necessary in introducing material into their schools 
to pay the first cost themselves, and they sometimes feel that such a tax 
on their purses is unjust and that school boards are very heartless in not 
allowing them some little latitude in such matters. But experience 
teaches, in a majority of cases, that if they will be content to advance a 
small investment in the right kind of material and then patiently work 
out with that material results which are worth showing the committee, the 
latter will be glad to approve the bill for a second order in the same line. 
The correct use of such material is just as much a process of education in 
the teacher, and parents and the school oflScial, as it is in the children. 

The kindergarten has furnished many suggestions to the most sucessf ul 
primary teachers now on the stage, and a good many of its occupations, 
often in a modified form, have found their way into the primary school- 
room. 



PREFACE. V 

Although the primary school cannot be a kindergarten every teacher who 
has been so fortunate as to take a kindergarten course finds it of unques- 
tioned benefit in all her school work. And yet no one need wait for a 
technical understanding of the kindergarten course before venturing to use 
any or all of the material described here. A considerable part of it owes 
its origin to some bright teacher fond of experimenting with home-made 
apparatus, who has in time become convinced that his or her appliance is 
worthy of a broad public recognition and has persuaded us into accepting 
that opinion, and the directions for using all of it will, we trust, be found 
exceedingly explicit and easily understood. 

Neither should a teacher wishing to know more about the kindergarten 
than she has yet been able to learn despair of the task, because there are 
no opportunities at hand for taking the regular course. By ordering the 
material from the Kindergarten Catalogue, a little at a time if need be, 
and a careful study of such books as "The Kindergarten and the School," 
"Paradise of Childhood," and other similar works, a very considerable 
knowledge of the system can be gained. It is like studying a foreign 
language by yourself ; creditable progress can be made, but the help of a 
teacher is desirable when such help can be secured. 

This little book only claims to be a compilation from all available 
sources of such descriptive matter as will help the teachers of ungraded 
schools to handle to the best advantage the material of which it treats. 
The compilers have endeavored to give liberal ^credit all along through its 
pages to those teachers and educational writers from whom ideas have 
been borrowed, and they desire particularly to thank the friends not 
herein mentioned by name who have aided them in the preparation of 
the manuscript. 

Even as a compilation the book is incomplete, at its best. As has 
already been hinted, much space might have been given to the things 
which are most talked about in the teachers' conventions of the day. 
Manual Training, Cooking, Sewing, the teaching of Natural and Physical 
Science, etc. All these things are of the first importance when considered 
as a part of the American educational system, but they are not the most 
essential branches to be taken in hand, during school hours b}' the 
average pupil in an ungraded school. Almost every boy iu such a school 
undertakes a course of his own in " jack knife work" and few of the girls 
lack some practice in cooking and sewing, while there are always abun- 
dant opportunities for investigating the hidden facts of elementary science, 
without the aid of special apparatus, if the teacher is alert to embrace 
them. Consequently much has been omitted that might have found a 
place here, under other conditions, and many themes and methods have 
been merely hinted at which the progressive teacher may be glad to 
pursue beyond the outline imperfectly sketched on these pages. 



CONTENTS. 



Chapter 








Page. 


I. 


Language Work. ..... 9 


II. 


The Beginning of Form vStudy 






13 


III. 


Clay Modeling 






20 


IV. 


Devices For Teaching Form 






23 


V. 


The Teaching of Color 






27 


VI. 


Stick Laying 






31 


VII. 


Card-board Sewing 






35 


VIII. 


Paper Weaving 






41 


IX. 


Paper Folding 






49 


X. 


Paper Cutting 






53 


XI. 


Drawing and Drawing Implements 






56 


XII. 


Number Work 






66 


XIII. 


Time and Money 






74 


XIV. 


The Teaching of Fractions 






82 


XV. 


Weights, Measures and Mensuration 






86 


XVI. 


Geography .... 






91 


XVII. 


Physiology .... 






94 


XVIII. 


Physical Training 






98 


XIX. 


Concerning the Kindergarten . 






103 



CHAPTER!. 
LANGUAGE WORK. 

An expert writer on primary education lays down this bit of philosophy 
in a book for teachers recently published : "During the first years of 
school life the subjects of study should be of a character to facilitate the' 
formation of perceptions and their transition into conceptions. They 
should lie on the side of the concrete, the actual, the outer, they should 
deal with facts, with space, with objects. They should gradually merg€ 
into forms that lie on the side of the absti-act, the possible, the inner, thiat 
deal with principles, with laws, with time, steadily leading the child out 
of the complexity of things into the simplicity of thought." ' 

These words neatly present, in a nut-shell, the argument for object 
teaching in the youngest classes and the same idea is often condensed into 
the motto "From the Concrete to the Abstract" by apostles of the New 
Education. This motto pertains both to the order in which different 
studies should be taken up by little children and also to the methods to be 
pursued in teaching those studies. 

Language Work is naturally the first department to be considered in a 
general scheme for common-school education. It may be defined as any 
school occupation intended to secure an intelligent expression of ideas, 
whether that occupation be the simplest talk between the teacher and 
the children about their reading lesson before they begin it, or the analyti- 
cal study of English or classical literature by the most advanced pupils. 
Language work certainly includes Beading, Writing and Spelling, to- 
gether with what has so long been called the study of grammar, and is of ' 
the first importance in the ungraded school. - 

But language work in its beginnings must progress from the concrete 
toward the abstract. The youthful mind is most intent on those things ' 
which can be seen and handled,^ therefore the little child should first be 
taught to read the names of familiar objects.- Again the youthful mind 
finds it easier to deal first with wholes and then to separate those wholes - 
into parts than to begin with fragments and construct wholes from them. * 
He would be rated a poor teacher who should undertake to fix the idea of 
an apple in the mind of a child who had never seen one by first showing 
him a quarter of an apple and then, after adding each of the other three- 
quarters in succession, present the four as a whole apple. But how much ' 
better is the plan of teaching- the child a- whole word by making him learn ' 
the letters in it and how to put them together before he knows what^idea 



10 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

the word represents ? When he grasps the word it will mean something 
to him, if it is the name of some familiar object or action, but the letters 
are without meaning. 

Accepting these principles the best primary instructors of our day take 
objects with which the children are most familiar as the texts for their first 
reading lessons and then teach whole words, and even short sentences, 
before paying any attention to the Alphabet. Of course by so doing they 
revolutionize the long-accepted primary methods and put the teaching of 
spelling after that of reading, instead of before it. 

Another popular innovation is the simultaneous teaching of script 
words and sentences with that of those printed in ordinary type, so that 
the pupil learns to read plain writing as early and as well as he can print- 
ed matter. Indeed some teachers claim that he should not be taught any 
printed words until he has mastered the reading of simple script senten- 
ces, and that then the transition from one form to the other can easily be 
made in one or two lessons. They never encourage him to copy the 
printed forms of words, as was formerly done, but let him begin to write 
words and sentences as soon as he understands what they mean. 

That there is a wide difference of opinion among progressive educators 
respecting the best methods of primary language work it is useless to de- 
ny. The}^ have, however, a common aim, which is admirably set forth in 
an article lately published, by Dr. Edward Brooks of Philadelphia on 
"How can the average child get a better education ?" " 'The average 
child,' says Dr. Brooks, should be taught to speak, write, and read his 
mother tongue. Special lessons should be given in talking, and learning 
to speak correctly. There should be 'talking classes' as well as observa- 
tion or 'seeing classes.' New words should be given, and the imperfec- 
tions of articulation, pronunciation, grammatical construction, etc., care- 
fully corrected until correct habits of expression are formed. The 'aver- 
age child' of ten years can be taught to know by sight nearly all the 
words found in any ordinary series of reading-books. He can also be 
taught how to 'get the thought' from the combination of these words in 
sentences and paragraphs, if 'reading' is properly taught. Also children 
of ten years of age can be taught to spell all the ordinary words they meet 
in their readers, or which they would use in writing. They can also be 
taught to write a fair hand, and to express in writing what they actually 
know about any object or subject. The simple rules of letter-writing, 
how to begin, arrange, end, address, fold, etc., a letter, can be mastered 
by the ordinary boy or girl of ten." 

To enter into the details of language work in a brief educational treat- 
ise like this is clearly impossible. While good text-books are essential it 
can readily be seen that they do not necessarily come first, and that va- 
rious other aids and devices can be made very useful. Some of these we 
shall now proceed to consider. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL 11 

A Special Table Needed For The Little Children. 

It may be said here, incidentally, that while the teacher of any ungraded 
school cannot expect to have all the modern improvements in her school- 
room, she ought to insist on a long, low table near the platform, where 
the children can do a variety of special work, by classes or sections, 
either standing or sitting in chairs which match the height of the table. 
The latter does not need to be expensively finished, anything w'ithin the 
capacity of the nearest carpenter or even of the oldest boys in the school 
will do, but the top should be covered with the squared enameled cloth, 
accurately ruled in uniformly fine lines, which is so much esteemed by 
kindergartners and all teachers who make Busy Work a matter of sci- 
entific study. No teacher of little children who has once used such a ta- 
ble will feel that she can possibly get along without it. Grouped about 
it they can occupy themselves with many things which are both pleasant 
and profitable while she is attending to the older classes. 
The Sentence Builder. 

While the teacher of an ungraded school is otherwise occupied 
the little children can do a great deal by way of diverting and instruct- 
ing themselves, seated at their desks or gathered in groups about such a 
table as has just been described. Boxes of words and letters have for a 
long time been found to be valuable helps in teaching reading and spell- 
ing, when placed in the hands of young pupils for their individual use. 
According to the principles laid down in the early part of this chapter 
The Sentence Builder should come first in the series of which we propose 
to speak. 

As soon as the pupil has comand of a stock of five or six words 
sentence-buUding can begin by dictation from the teacher, and also 
the child's invention. 

It is a box containing two hundred and twenty-five separate tab- 
lets, and forty-five different words, each of which is repeated five 
times. These words are all of them supposed to be familiar to the 
child and are printed on both sides of aubstantial and durable card- 
board, in cle'ar, bold type, so as to be read by the teacher at a 
considerable distance, although it is also so condensed that the let- 
ters take up the least possible space from right to left on the desk. 
In selecting the words the attempt has been made to present those 
which will readily group themselves into such language-stories as 
the child wiU be most likely to form for himself, with the occasional 
help of the teacher. Most of the nouns are capable of pictorial illus- 
tration and all the words are those will meet very early in his ac- 
quaintance with the First Reader. Wherever a word is suitable for 
beginning a sentence it is printed on one side of the tablets with its 
first letter as a capital, so that it can be used for that purpose when 
desirable. 



12 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

The WoKD Builder. ' 

This is a box of some two hundred letters, printed on small pieces of 
card-board of good thickness, accurately cut to gauges. The assortment 
comprises capitals and small letters, numerals and punctuation marks, in 
the same proportion as they occur in fonts of type, the same letter being 
printed on both sides of the tablet. The use of The Word Builder, fol- 
lows tha{ of The Sentence Builder, just as the spelling of a word, that is 
the separating of it into its parts, follows the reading of that word, which 
is recognizing it as a whole. The convenience and durability of this box 
of letters have made The Word Builder exceedingly popular. 
The Word Making Tablets. 

Some teachers prefer a box of letters in large type and on tablets an 
inch square for the same purposes for which others use The Word Builder. 
The letters in this box are printed on both sides of the tablets and are as- 
sorted as in fonts' of type. The uniform size of the tablets gives a stand- 
ard measurement for the pupil's eye, which is an excellent feature of the 
collection. i ; 

The Language Tablets. 

This scheme for helping children, to master the first steps in reading is 
more comprehensive than either of those mentioned above. The box is 
considerably larger and holds about six hundred words like those found in 
The Sentence Builder. It also contains a small box of letters like those 
in The Word Builder, so that a word made up from these letters occupies 
the same space as it would if printed ona tablet. There are two sizes of 
the tablets, one being an inch square and the other an inch by an inch 
and a half. So far as is possible a word and its derivative are placed on 
different sides of the small tablet, and when a tablet contains two wholly 
different words those beginning with the same le1rl:er are usually brought 
together, to facilitate finding the word wanted. 

The pupil using The Language Tablets should know something about 
both reading and spelling. If he cannot find just the words which he 
wants to finish his story let him spell them out with the letters. While 
the number of words in the box is enough to give him interesting and val- 
uable practice, as the list printed on the inside of the cover abundantly 
shows, it is not bewilderingly extended. From this list the teacher can 
check off a more limited selection for the immediate use of the smaller 
children, if she so chooses, placing the rest in an envelope to be sealed up 
and kept till wanted. 

Having outlined Language Work in the briefest way it remains to sug- 
gest that a great deal of material will be described in the following pages 
which can be used to advantage in language lessons, but which, for con- 
venience, is classified under other departments. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 13 



CHAPTER II. 
THE BEGINNING OP FORM STUDY. 

A knowledge of the simplest geometrical forms, such as the cube, 
sphere and cylinder, is deemed an essential result of the right kind of 
primary work by all progressive teachers, a necessary foundation for 
much subsequent study. That such knowledge can readily be acquired 
by little children has been frequently proved in the kindergarten, where 
they learn, almost instinctively, the essential facts about a variety of 
solids, surfaces- and angles. But it rarely happens that any member of 
an ungraded school is a kindergarten graduate, and the teacher should 
therefore take pains to, make her pupils, during the first year of school- 
life, if possible, thoroughly acquainted with some of the forms, their sev- 
eral characteristics and how they differ from each other, placing the mod- 
els in their hands, so that they can become familiar with'them. This last 
is an essential point, because a teacher may hold a cube, for instance, in 
her hand and explain all about its edges, faces, corners, angles, etc., for 
an entire term, and then in one lesson of twenty minutes with the models 
in their own hands the pupils will learn more about the cube than they 
have in all the previous weeks of that term. 

Form study has come to be accepted as the foundation of drawing and 
the modern school which lacks instruction in drawing is but poorly equip- 
ped, no matter what are its other excellences. But there are many teach- 
ers in the harness who scarcely know what form study is and are without 
knowledge re^garding the proper way of teaching drawing. The thing for 
such teachers to do, if they have no means at hand for securing instruction 
along these lines, is to provide themselves with a set of models, and also 
with a series of drawing-books of established reputation, and work out 
the best results possible under the circumstances, transmitting to their pu- 
pils the knowledge which they have first made their own. Of course in 
this case, as in a multitude of others, any attempt to copy the system 
prevailing in city graded schools will be marked with decided modifica- 
tions. A set of models for each pupil and a drawing-book for every child 
who is of suitable age to use one are scarcely admissible in the average 
ungraded school, but every teacher can have at least one set of models 
within her reach and the majority can fit themselves to do something in 
teaching drawing, provided they realize its importance. Those who do 
appreciate that importance can readily get the help which they most need 
through instruction by correspondence, if they will communicate with the 



14 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



instructors of the schools which have been organized for this express pur- 
pose. The courses of study in these schools have been so definitely laid 
out and the text-books and objects for study so carefully arranged that 
it is confidently asserted by the promoters of these enterprises that any 
teacher of good abilities, who is willing to give a part of her spare time 
to earnest home-study for a few months, can become a capable instructor 
in form study and drawing. 

Geometrical Subfaces and Solids. 




"We have here illustrated a set of forms which is well adapted to the use 
of a teacher whose pupils are not graded, both for self -instruction and 
teaching. It embraces the common surfaces and solids found in elemen- 
tary geometry, together with a simple illustration of angles, the collection 
including twenty-three solids, seventeen surfaces and three angles. The 
solids are accurately and neatly made from well-seasoned hard wood and 
the surfaces from a very hard light-colored board, accurately cut with 
steel dies, the angles being represented by bent wires. The contents of 
the box is as follows : — 



No. 

1 Equilateral Tri. Prism. 

2 Rig-ht-angled Tri. Prism. 

3 Square Prism. 

4 Hexagonal Prism. 

5 Octagonal Prism. 

6 Cylinder. 

7 Cylinder with Diagonal Sect. 
S Cone. 

9 Truncated Cone. 



Solids. 

10 Pj-ramid, Square Base. 17 Hemisphere. 

11 Pyramid, Triangular Base. iS Sphere. 

12 Cone Truncated Diagonally. 19 Circular Plinth. 

13 Cone, with section showing 20 Square Plinth 
the Hyperbola. 21 Ovoid or Egg. 

14 Cone, with section showing 22 Ellipsoid. 

the Parabola. 23 Oblate Spheroid. 

IJ Cube. 24 Combination of 7 and I2. 
i6 Cylinder. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL 3f ATE RIAL. 15 

Surfaces. 

35 Equilateral Triangle. 32 Two Unequal Sectors. 37 Right-angled Isosceles Tri. 

26 Square. 33 Two Unequal Segments. 3S Acute-angled Isosceles Tri. 

27 Pentagon. 34 Ellipse. 39 Obtuse-angled Isosceles Tri. 

28 Hexagon. 3S Oval. 40 Obtuse-angled Scalene Tri. 

29 Octagon. 36 Right-angled Scalene Tri- 41 Rhombus, Diamond or Loz- 

30 Circle. angle, having its two acute enge, made from two equilat- 

31 Semi-circle. angles 30° and 60°. eral triangles. 

Angles. 

42 A Right Angle, formed by a 43 Obtuse Angle. 44 Acute Angle, 

bent w^ire representing a line. 

The curves of the Conic Sections, the Circle, Ellipse, Hyperbola and 
Parabola, are clearly shown in Nos. 9, 12, 13, 14. The circle is a plane 
section parallel with the base, the ellipse oblique to the base and cutting 
both sides, the hyperbola parallel to one side. The set is put up in a neat 
aijd substantial paper-board box. 

The FmsT Things To Be Taught With The Models. 

Of coui'se no teacher will wish to present all these forms to the attention 
of her pupils at the same time, but, as has been suggested at the begin- 
ning of this chapter, she will first seek to give them some knowledge of 
the simplest forms. This can be done by oral lessons. Let the sphere 
be the starting-point. By encouraging the child to handle it and answer 
questions about it he can soon be made to understand that it rolls in all 
directions and that its outline is a circle from whatever point viewed. In 
the cylinder he discovers a form which will roll in one direction but not 
in the other. He also sees that the end is a circle, and perhaps he may 
be made to comprehend, after some effort, that the side view is a rectan- 
gle. In the cube he is introduced to new features, plane faces with sti-aight 
lines on the corners. Having proceeded by easy stages from the sphere 
to the cube, the square plane faces, right-lined edges and their angles will 
become familiar to the children, so that the right angle itself can be easi- 
ly explained. 

The pupils have now worked up from the ball to the surface and the 
lines. In order to illustrate the relation of the surface of a cube to the 
cube itself kindergarten teachers sometimes cut out a cube from an apple, 
a potato or some similar substance and slice off surfaces from it, before 
the children. But where the pupils are older than those commonly found 
in the kindergarten the same object can usually be accomplished by plac- 
ing on the cube a card-board tablet corresponding in size with one of its 
faces, which when removed will represent a surface of the cube. Its ed- 
ges show lines and its corners angles and by this means it is comparative- 
ly easy to demonstrate that the surface has been derived from the solid. 
Now the boundaries of the surfaces are lines, just as the boundaries of 
the solids are surfaces, and the piece of wire bent to a right angle may 
be applied to one corner of the square tablet and removed, so as to give 
the children an idea of the lines which form an angle when joined to- 
gether. 



16 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



The idea of an angle, as distinct from the surface included between the 
lines which form that angle, may be further explained by taking two thin 
sticks, or straight wires, one in each hand, and, after placing one end of 
one of them against an end of the other, gradually opening and shutting 
them, showing that the opening between them is the angle, but not the 
surface, because the size of the angle is not de^jendent on the length of 
the sticks. 

Bailey's Development of Sufaces. 




The material used for constructing these geometrical forms consists of 
card-board sheets with printed outlines of the developed surfaces of the 
principal solids. The list includes the five forms leading to the sphere, 
four varieties of prisms, three of pyramids, two of frustums of pyramids, 
with the cone, frustum of cone and plinth, and is as follows : — 



Tetrahedon. 
Octahedron. 
Dodecahedron. 
Icosahedron. 
Cube. 

Triangular Prism 
Square Prism. 
Pentagonal Prism. 



9 Cylinder. ' 

10 Square Pyramid. 

11 Hexagonal Pyramid, 

12 Pentagonal Pyramid. 

13 Frustum of Square Pyramid. 

14 Frustum of Hexagonal Pyramid. 
V Square I'rism. 15 Cone. 
8 Pentagonal Prism. 16 Frustum of Cone. 

17 Plinth. 

The forming of the several solids from the developed surfaces indicated 
on these sheets is a valuable exercise in manual training, and the pupils 
who undertake it learn incidentally the geometrical forms in advance of the 
study of geometry. The use ofthis material also makes it possible to read- 
ily secure a set of models for form study and drawing. 

The set contains five sheets of card-board, each about eleven by fourteen 
inches, on which are printed the outlines of different developed surfaces, 
as well as dotted lines to guide the pupil in forming the solids. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 17 

The value of this work depends largely on its being done accurately and 
neatly, and both teacher and pupil should strive for perfection in these re- 
spects. A complete set of directions for forming the desired solids, from 
the diflei'ent developed surfaces is furnished with each set. 
A CoTjRSE In Form Study Outlined. 

Having noted in a very general way the kind of work which a well-in- 
formed teacher will undertake with the models, it may not be out of place 
to indicate what might be attempted in a regular course of form study, 
even though the idea of such a thing may seem decidedly formidable to 
some teachers of ungraded schools. "We are first to handle each solid so 
that the children shall get a concept of it, that is, become so familiar with 
it that when the name of the solid is mentioned a mental image of it will 
rise up before them. Then they should be encouraged to make the solid 
in clay, so as to express their idea of it as a whole, and next to give the 
theory of its parts, faces and edges. Then let the pupils express the ideas 
of the faces by cutting their shapes in paper and by drawing them on the 
board or on paper. Next make in clay objects based on the solids which 
have been studied. Use the plane figures found in solids in designs that 
may be pasted or sewed on card-board. Study the appearance of the sol- 
id when practicable and also the appearance of objects which are similar 
to this solid. 

The following summary of what it is possible to do in form study dur- 
ing the first four years of a child's school life is from the pen of the late 
Dr. John H. French, director of drawing in the teachers' institutes of 
New York state : — 

1. TYPE-SOLIDS. 

4. Hemisphere. 

5. Square Prism. 

6. Right- Angled Triangular Prism. 

1. Ellipsoid. 4. Cone. 

2. Ovoid. 5. Pyramid. 

3. Equilatei-al Triangular Prism. 6. Vase Form. 

(a) The first half of the first year the work is to be mainly the study of 
the six type-forms, with some attempts at representation by stick and tab- 
let-laying. No drawing as a regular exercise is to be required this half- 
year. 

(b) In the second half of the first year simple exercises in paper-folding 
and paper-cutting are required. Drawing is to begin in this half-year. 
Method of Study : Order of Study : 

1. By sight. 1. As wholes. 

-^2. By touch. 2. As to faces. 

3. By arrangement. 3. As to surface. 

4. As to edges and corners. 



FiKST Year. 




1. 


Sphere. 


2. 


Cube. 


3. 
Second Year. 


Cylinder 



18 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

Ways of expressing : 

1. By language. 2. By making. 3. By Drawing. 

Plane figures to he taught: 

1. Circle. 4. Right- Angled Triangle. 

2. Square. 5. Equilateral Triangle. 

3. Oblong. 6. Isosceles Triangle. 

LINES ARE TO BE TAUGHT. 

As to directness : 

1. Straight. 2 Curved. 

As to position : As to relation : 

1. Horizontal. 1. Parallel. 

2. Vertical. 2. Perpendicular. 

3. Oblique. 3. Converging and Diverging. 

Third and Fourth Years. 

1. Continuing study of the twelve type-solids, 

2. Study of natural forms based upon those solids. 

3. Teach reversed curves, symmetry, and proportion. 

4. Drill in position, pencil-holding, pencil-movements and quality 

of line. 

The study of models and objects is continued in the fifth year, being con- 
sidered with reference to their industrial construction and also their picto- 
rial representation. In the sixth year they are studied as to their appear- 
ance as wholes, that is, perspectively. The next year they are studied as 
to their perspective appearance when turned at an angle, particular at- 
tention being also paid to the foreshortning of rectangular surfaces and the 
convergence of lines retreating from the eye. During the sixth, seventh 
and eighth years all the work of form study and drawing is definitely divid- 
ed under Construction, Representation and Decoration, and in the eighth 
year the various models and objects are studied as to their facts, some of 
them in section. Instruments are introduced, and the solution of simple 
problems in plain geometry is required, with the view of preparing the pu- 
pils for the application in practical industry of the principles already 
learned. 

Suggestions For Beginners. 

In order to make plain to inexperienced teachers what has already been 
stated we insert here a few suggestions as to details by Prof. Langdon S. 
Thompson of Jersey City, published in the Teachers' Institute : — 

FIRST half-year. 

Age of the pupils, 6 to 7. 

1. The models to be studied; sphere, cube and cylinder; the circle, 
square and oblong. Material : clay, sticks, colored paper, drawing paper. 

Methods. — Let the pupil learn the use of the terms on, under, middle, 
center, near, etc., etc. Then try the actions of the models ; roll, slide, etc. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 19 

Then let modeling be tried with clay. Then let them name objects resem- 
bling the models. Teach to arrange, so as to teach apart, in rows, etc. 
' • 2. Models to be studied as to surface, also as to relation, — standing, ly- 
ing, etc., etc. 

3. As TO FACES. — Sphere has one round face, cube six, etc. Shape of 
faces. (Pupils will select other objects having same shape.) Teach use 
of vertical, horizontal, opposite. 

4. As to EDGES. — Curved on cylinder, straight on cube, etc. Tablet 
and stick-laying. Drawing the models. (Begin with cube held right in 
front in left hand, for example.) Lay sticks and draw them, (for exam- 
ple, making a square.) 

5. As to CORNERS. — Shape, number, position ; employ terms upper, low- 
er, etc. Cut squares of paper and fold ; model with clay. 

6. RevIew. — Terms like and unlike, shape, size, dimensions, surface, 
faces, edges, corners, positions, etc., and see that they are clearly understood. 

SECOND HALF-YEAR. 

Materials. — * Hemisphere, ^ square prism, 3 right-angled triangular 
prism, semi-circle, right-angled triangle, also clay, sticks, colored paper, 
and drawing paper. 

1. Nos. 1, 2, 3, studied as wholes. Relation of No. 1 to sphere ; use 
terms, equal and bisecting by making sphere of clay, and cutting into two 
parts. Relation of No. 2 to cube. Name objects of same shape ; bring 
such to school. Drawing. Hold objects in front of eye and draw one 
side, then another. 

2. Nos. 1, 2, and 3, studied as to surface ; use terms round and plane. 
Model objects having the general shape of 1, 2, 3, as dish, half-an-apple, 
hen-house, etc. Use terms side-view, top-view, etc. 

3. Nos. 1, 2, 3, studied as to faces, name them (as No. 1 has one round 
and one plane face.) Shape of faces. Find objects resembling these 
faces. Position of faces, vertical, horizontal, oblique. Relation of faces 
parallel, perpendicular, oblique to each other. Draw and model faces. 

4. Nos. 1, 2, 3, studied as to edgfes. Measure length in inches. Stick- 
laying to represent edges and faces. Tablet-laying, in ornamental forms, 
modeling and drawing. 

6. Review. — The six type-solids. Blindfold pupils and let them name 
models. Let them describe each in suitable language. They should now 
be able to draw from memory, the top, end, and side views of the differ- 
ent solids. Invent various means of giving an idea of the shape of each 
as by rolling paper around cylinder pasting edges, and then removing 
cylinder. 



20 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



CHAPTER III. 
CLAY MODELING. 

The modeling of objects in clay is so closely allied with that form study 
which necessitates the handling of such models as have already been de- 
scribed that a few directions regarding clay modeling are next in order. 
The best results in form study are secured with pupils who are provided 
with clay from which to make the forms for themselves. Suppose, for 
instance, that the attempt is made to imitate the sphere in clay and the 
result is not wholly satisfactory. The contrast between the wooden 
model and the clay copy of it will show clearly where the fault lies. 
Having made the sphere in clay the child can easily convert it into a cube 
by flattening the sides on the modeling board. Illustrations like these 
might be multiplied indefinitely to show the advantages of clay modeling 
as a part of form study. 

Any teacher who shall propose ,to introduce clay work as a part of the 
exercises of the average ungraded scliool must be prepared to meet a va- 
riety of objections. The parents of her children will be very apt to re- 
gard a proposition like that as a foolish way of spending precious time 
and also to argue that the occupation must be a dirty one, soiling clothes, 
fingers and furniture. And she herself may have misgivings at the outset 
as to how she can possibly find time for a task which, although it may be 
both delightful and instructive, is so entirely out of the usual course, or 
how she shall secure the necessary material. But having first convinced 
herself that modeling is the thing to have in her school the probabilities 
are that she will find ways and means both of introducing it and making 
it popular throughout the district. 

A teacher of experience in this line of work writes: "The universal 
passion in a child to mould dough, mud, snow, etc., and everything he 
can mould into cookies, fruit and every conceivable thing, ought to se- 
cure to all in mature years the ability to make what is made to some ex- 
tent artistic. This would be the result if the desire were encouraged and 
cultivated as one of the important factors in education. No half-hour in 
the week is spent more delightfully or in a more useful way by the little 
kindergarten child than that given to the clay. Let the tables be covered 
with enameled cloth and a small piece of clay given each child. Great 
care should be taken that the clay is made just right to handle and only 
as much be given to each child as he is likely to require for the form 
which he is to make. Many forms- will be suggested, as an apple, peach, 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 21 

pear, egg, etc., there being no end of the child's capacity for 'thinking up' 
forms to make, and the kindergartner has only to exercise tact and skill 
in keeping him within proper limits while she respects his imaginative 
flights and prevents his efforts from being aimless and desultory." 

Too much stress cannot be laid on the idea expressed in the closing 
words of the above quotation. Clay work in the school-room must cons- 
tantly combine beauty and business and never be allowed to drift into aim- 
less play. The objection that such work is dirty is raised by those who are 
not familiar with its use and object. The children are not given a tub of 
clay to play with, but merely a small piece, of just the proper consisten- 
cy for use. In this condition it is very cleanly and need not soil the 
clothes nearly as much as the use of chalk at the blackboard, while, un- 
like the chalk, it is beneficial to the hands, giving them a soft and smooth 
surface. Moreover, in the use of clay there is an entii'e absence of the 
dust arising from the crayon, which always fills the air while the work at 
the blackboard is going on. A small jar of moist clay may easily be kept 
prepared for use at no necessary expense after the first insignificant in- 
vestment, as the clay may be repeatedly returned to the jar after having 
been used. The necessary amount of water to be added occasionally will 
very soon be determined by a teacher. Muddy clay can never be used to 
any advantage, and, as before stated, when the clay is of the proper con- 
sistency to work to the best advantage it is not dirty. Superior refined 
modeling clay can be bought of dealers in kindergarten supplies, put up 
in dry bricks of five pounds each, at moderate cost. Teachers living near 
a pottery can always secure from it -clay of a reasonably good quality and 
those who are cut off from either of these sources of supply can afford to 
experiment with samples from any clay bank within their reach, as it some- 
times happens that veins of excellent material can be found even in those 
deposits where the bulk of clay is mixed with sand. 

But modeling need not of necessity be confined to clay. Whatever 
material is used in the school-room should be of such a nature as to be 
easily worked with harmless tools and not expensive. Plaster is too 
hard, and dulls tools too rapidly. "Wax, while in certain combinations 
good for modeling, is too sticky for cutting or carving. Several investi- 
gators in this line have found a very useful and economical material in 
hard white soap, which may be easily and delicately cut into almost any 
shape with simple tools, not necessarily sharp enough to be in any way 
dangerous, and presents a very pleasing appearance, strikingly similar to 
ivory. Soap also has the advantage for home work that the waste is 
worth all it costs for domestic uses and with careful handling it may be 
economically employed in school exercises. ParaflSne has several advan- 
tages over soap in that it is stronger, woi'king safely to finer lines, is not 
affected by moisture from the hands or in taking moulds for making cop- 
ies in plaster or other substances, and that the waste can be melted up 



22 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

into blocks for other work. ParafBne has recently been put on the mar- 
ket in bricks of three sizes, at very reasonable rates. From simple bas- 
reliefs cut in either soap or paraffine, or modeled in clay, plaster moulds 
can be made from which duplicates of the original may be produced in 
plaster. A new material called Plastina, which does not dry like clay nor 
harden like wax, but always maintains its plasticity and softness, is 
recommended by C. Hennecke Co., Milwaukee, Wis.. This firm publish 
Hennecke's "Art Studies," a work containing many valuable directions 
and illustrations relating to modeling, wood carving and drawing, and 
also manufacture a large line of art models for drawing and modeling. 
The manipulations already described are very simple and interesting and 
wonderfully develop "gumption" in the boys and girls. Various designs 
for modeling can be found in the Paradise of Childhood and any teacher 
of an ungraded school who can enjoy the opportunity of visiting a kin- 
dergarten or graded school where modeling is done will get many hints 
in regard to methods of using the material and forms to be reproduced 
which are not laid down in the books. 

The Squared Enameled Cloth. 

Although this cloth has been mentioned before, and may be referred 
to in subsequent pages, its use is so essential in connection with clay 
modeling that this seems to be the proper place in which to call special 
attention to it. Various unsuccessful attempts have been made to secure 
in the squared cloth an adequate substitute for the kindergarten table-top, 
the difficulty of making fine lines and accurate squares on the cloth being 
a serious drawback. The squares were first striped with a painter's brush, 
but the stripes were apt to be too wide for the best results. Other meth- 
ods subsequently employed proved equally unsatisfactory. 

The squared enameled cloth manufactured for the uses already indicated 
is accurately ruled in uniformly fine lines, by special machinery purchased 
at considerable outlay, according to the most approved processes of print- 
ing on oil-cloth, so that the red lines will wear as long as the black back- 
ground. The cloth has a beautiful, varnished surface and is forty-five 
inches wide. The price is less than has hitherto been charged for a great- 
ly inferior article. 

In some schools this cloth is permanently fastened to the desks occu- 
pied by the little children and the teachers regard it as a great boon, not 
only for clay work but in connection with nearly all the kindergarten occu- 
pations. It only needs to be wiped over with a damp cloth to make it 
look as good as new when the exercise in clay is finished. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL 3IATERIAL. 23 

• 



CHAPTER lY. 
DEVICES FOR TEACHING FORM. 

Aside from the models and clay modeling the teacher can avail herself 
of various devices which will help to fix correct ideas of form in the little 
children's minds and at the same time serve as busy work for them while 
she attends to the more advanced class. In fact the contents of this 
whole chapter would probably be classed as Busy Work by a multitude of 
teachers. Let it be, however, as has been hinted in the preface, a busy 
work which tends to development and is carried on by the teacher with a 
clear idea of what she is about, and not merely with the forlorn hope of 
keeping the children out of mischief. Most of the material to be described 
has been thoroughly tested by kindergartners and pronounced valuable. 

The Inch Cubes. 

One of the most popular diversions of the modern school-room is the use 
of inch-cubes for busy work and number work. They can be bought in 
boxes and in bulk, plain and in six colors, red, yellow, blue, orange, 
green and purple. These cubes represent the third kindergarten gift, and 
can be used in a great variety of ways for the study of form and design, 
as well as numbers and fractions. For specific directions the teacher is 
referred to the articles on The Third Gift in The Paradise of Childhood 
and the numerous illustrations found in the plates devoted to that gift. 
They show the method of constructing the "Forms of Life," "Forms of 
Knowledge" and ' 'Forms of Beauty" which were so dear to the heart of 
Froebel and which can be readily and advantageously modified to conform 
with the intelligence and experience of the children who are asked to 
make them. Let the little folks build from copies forts, bridges, towers, 
etc. In case they have never seen these objects they will listen with 
pleasure to short stories about them, and, associating the story with the 
form, be able to reconstruct the latter while they repeat the former in their 
own words. They will show themselves quite apt in teaching resemblan- 
ces between the structures which they have made and the objects with 
which they are familiar. It is well sometimes to adapt such names of forms 
as the children apply themselves, and to allow them to invent forms, the 
teacher assisting the fancy of the little builder in the work of construction 
and assigning names to the edifice. In using colored cubes for all the oc- 
cupations indicated above the children are trained to distinguish, classify 
and combine colors. These one-inch colored cubes have been adopted 
as necessary primary material in many of the leading American cities. 



24 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

Mrs. Hailmann's Beads. 

This name is applied to the half -inch forms of the cube, sphere and 
cylinder, assorted in six colors, which are used in many primary schools 
as busy work and an aid in clinching the child's knowledge of form, color 
and number. They are named from Mrs. Eudora L. Hailmann, an ex- 
perienced kindergartner at La Porte, Ind., and present, in reduced size 
and in colors, the material which makes the second gift such a valuable 
part of the kindergarten system. Each piece is perforated for stringing, 
so that with the forms and six colors a great variety of combinations can 
be made, many inventions and exercises being admissible. Stringing the 
beads is an occupation which not only trains the eye to distinguish form 
and color but causes the child to exercise his will in directing the motions 
of his fingers. Watching the children at this diversion one cannot fail 
to be impressed by the cautious movements of the hands as they work 
out at the tips of their fingers the ideas in mind. 

A variety of occupations are possible with this material. Let the teach- 
er prepare a string of beads for the child to copy. In doing this the in- 
fantile student must consider not only the arrangement of the whole string, 
be it alternation or repetition of form and color, but number as well. To 
take all this requires more than a casual glance and to reproduce it de- 
mands that the whole attention of the little worker shall be concentrated 
in his employment. While he is thus occupied he will find less time to 
give his slate innumerable washings, to arrange and rearrange his various 
belongings and to punch his seat and his neighbors. Mrs. Hailmann's 
beads are sold in small boxes, each of which contains thirty-six in assort 
ed colors, and a shoe-lacing on which to string them, also in gross boxes 
and in bulk. For further suggestions regarding their use the teacher is 
commended to any standard treatise on the second kindergarten gift. 
Papers and Straws for Stringing. 

One of the principal objects of busy work is to train the children so that 
they may gain in power not only to know but also in the equally import- 
ant power to do. Suppose you give a child discs of colored paper and 
short pieces of straw and ask him to make with them one of those beauti- 
ful festoons which are so often seen on the walls of kindergarten rooms. 
If he has never had any experience in stringing the beads the task will 
be almost impossible. But after such training he will not find it difficult 
to adjust the papers and straws with artistic harmony, a fact which indi- 
cates a positive growth in his power to observe and his ability to control 
the motions of the hand. 

The paper is cut in circles an inch in diameter and also in inch squares. 
Each form is sold in packages of a thousand pieces, assorted colors. The 
straws can also be bought in packages of a thousand pieces, each an inch 
long, either plain or assorted in six colors. The operation of stringing 
the straws and discs of colored paper together, so as to form a very at- 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 25 

tractive chain, and the straws, although it may seem to a superficial ob- 
server merely a pretty device to keep children out of mischief, aids in es- 
tablishing the idea of an inch, foot, square, circle, and the center of the 
square and circle. 

The alternation of colors compels the child to give the closest attention 
to his work, while the delicacy of material demands a skillful touch. 
Consequently if "the committee" who visits your school, seeing the little 
children at the table busy with straws and discs, should wish to know the 
use of all this "fancy work," you can show him that the pupils are work- 
ing out number lessons. 

Twelve of the one-inch straws when placed together, end to end, make 
a foot, and the same is true of twelve paper discs laid in a row. Conse- 
quently the small boy who actually makes a foot in this way gets a much 
clearer idea of what a foot means than he could possibly gain from a book 
at a later period in life. The stringing of the papers by twos and threes 
in assorted colors can be made an exercise in addition or multiplication, 
while the handling of the squares and circles is of necessity a branch of 
form study and gives the pupil some of the first steps in the study of 
geometry. And then you can call the attention of the oflScial visitor to 
the care needed in order to produce a complete chain, emphasizing the 
fact that each time the little fingers push the needle through disc or straw 
they do so at the bidding of the child's will, that each act of willing and 
doing gives him an increase of power which is, as a result, of far more 
value than the knowledge of arithmetic which he has incidentally acquired. 




Primary Peg-boards. 
A very desirable part of the busy work outfit is a set of primary peg- 
boards and a quantity of colored pegs to go with them, the object of these 
things being to develop the ability of the children to copy and originate 
symmetrical forms and pleasing combinations of colors. The boards are 
about six inches square, and have one hundred holes drilled in them, in 
squares, half an inch apart. Round, neatly turned pegs, an inch long 
and in six colors, one thousand in a box, and also a cheaper assortment 
of square shoe-pegs are sold with the boards. The pegging of lines, 
angles and geometrical forms and the invention of new forms and combi- 
nations will prove not only a diversion to the little ones but will afford 
them valuable instruction. 



26 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



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■Fig. 1. Fig. 2. Fig. 3. 

Drawing Stencils for Our Little Artist. 

Drawing stencils made from leather-paper with perforations for the in- 
sertion of a lead or slate pencil have become very popular as fascinating 
and educational busy work. We mention them here as related to the 
general line of busy work merely, not claiming for them any particular 
value as an aid in the teaching of drawing, unless the work is carefully 
elaborated, as shown in figures 2 and 3. The use of the stencils is very 
simple. First place one of them on the paper or slate on which the 
picture is to be made and follow the openings with a well-sharpened pen- 
cil, taking care not to let the pattern slip. The result of this operation 
is illustrated on a reduced scale in fig. 1. As simple busy work for young 
children such practice is interesting and may prove valuable as manual 
training, but it can also be made the foundation for more advanced work 
with older pupils. 

After making the tracing, as described, and shown in fig. 1, the broken 
lines may be joined to form an outline drawing, as in fig. 2. This outline 
can now form the basis for several styles of finished drawings. If the 
sketch is made on paper with a rough surface it may be shaded with a 
lead pencil or colored with crayons, colored pencils or water colors. If 
the outline is made on a smooth, hard surface, it can be finished with pen 
and ink, as shown in fig. 3, which is a photo-engraving from a pen draw- 
ing executed exactly as above described. 

The new line of stencils with American designs is much more attractive 
to American children than the foreign collections which have hitherto oc- 
cupied the field and they contain outlines for making words as well as 
pictures. Two sets are published. No. 1 and No. 2, each in an orna- 
mental box, with chromo label, bearing the title, "Drawing Stencils for 
our Little Artist." Each box contains twenty stencils, with a stock of 
practice drawing paper and directions for use. The stencils will be found 
particularly useful for occupying those children who are constantly teas- 
ing for "something to do." 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 27 



CHAPTER Y. 
THE TEACHING OF COLOR. 

The importance of giving instruction regarding color in the public schools 
is being quite generally acknowledged and emphasized by the most thought- 
ful teachers of to-day. They feel that they ought to teach their pupils 
how to distinguish colors from each other and give the different colors 
correct names, as well as to know which of them can be brought together 
with good effect. Consequently there is no subject that is provoking more 
earnest discussion in progressive educational circles to-day than the question 
how the essential facts about color shall be taught. It is a question con- 
cerning which there are many diverse opinions and some theories which clash 
more or less with each other, but these very discussions are expected to do 
much in the way of making color an exact science and placing the teach- 
ing of color oil a scientific basis. 

The teacher of an ungraded school who is ambitious to do something in 
color will find that colored papers oifer the simplest and cheapest material 
for such work. After a little study of the subject she will also find that 
the color-teaching of children should be an effort to impart such a knowl- 
edge of the different colors that they will be recognized whenever the eye 
rests on them, and that their harmonies and contrasts shall be felt. Color- 
teaching also includes the effort to impart the knowledge of how the 
different colors are produced, but this line of work requires a higher grade 
of skill than the other, involving manual dexterity and judgment, and it 
should be preceded by the knowledge of the results to be accomplished. 

In the color-education of the past, two things which are intimately rela- 
ted in practice, but are nevertheless absolutely distinct, have been sadly 
mixed. The education of the eye to match, compare and select good and 
bad combinations is entirely separate from the ability to produce these same 
colors by combining pigments. The first process is adapted to the young- 
est children and may be carried on in a large school at very moderate ex- 
pense, without necessarily involving an explanation of the science of color. 
Consequently the work can be taken up by any teacher who has good taste 
in colors. At the same time it is better that the teacher know much more 
of the science than she has occasion to teach, and thereby be able to 
avoid imparting false theories to be unlearned in later life. Before 
attempting to use colors in the school-room she ought to procure a 
collection of well assorted and designated colors in some convenient ma- 
terial and with suitable books of instruction learn what combinations are 



28 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

good, and why thej^ are good. Any attempt to state even the most ele- 
mentary principles of color in the space available in a book like this would 
be utterly futile, but for all essential information on these points the teacher 
is referred to a small book entitled "Color in the School-room," pub- 
lished by Milton Bradley Co., which attempts to state plainly and briefly 
the science of color and the artistic use of colored materials, so as to get 
color-education on a sound basis. 

When the actual work of teaching begins the child should be introduced 
to the six strong standard colors, red, orange, yellow, green, blue and 
violet by name, and be taught to distinguish one from another. 

Then he must be trained to distinguish and name modifications of these 
standards, for, so far as material colors are concerned, all colors may 
with some truth be said to be formed from these sis, with the admixture 
of white and black, while certain authorities insist that the combinations 
of red, yellow and blue with white and black will produce all the different 
shades and tints of the several colors. Without joining it this discussion we 
may safely assume that there are six standard colors and that other colors 
are combinations of these, with the use of white and black. We should 
teach the children at the outset that a tint of a color is that color more or 
less reduced with white, and that a shade of a color is a mixture of a col- 
or with black. A hue of any color is that color modified by the admixture 
of a small quantity of another color. 

The teaching of color can be done most effectively in the primary school- 
room through the occupation of parquetry, weaving and sewing, all of which 
are given a prominent place in the kindergarten course. Weaving and 
sewing are described elsewhere in this manual and the plates accompany- 
ing this article may help to explain parquetry, w^hich is the forming of 
symmetrical and harmonious designs with colored papers cut in the forms 
of the wooden tablets which are found in the Seventh Kindergarten Gift. 

The designs are rendered permanent by mounting them on card-board 
sheets, which may be made into sample-books of the children's handiwork. 

In parquetry the circle, square and triangle, which the child has learned 
to recognize in his previous form study, become the units of the simple de- 
signs. These arrangements of designs should be an expression of the 
principles of repetition, repetition and alternation, repetition of a unit 
around a center to fill a given space, and the use of a central form. 

The first principal of repetition is taught by repeating horizontally 
squares, circles or triangles of one color, illustrated in Nos. 1, 2, 9, 10 and 
13 of the diagrams connected with this article. The principle of repetition 
and alternation is taught by using two forms of the same color, or a shade 
and tint of the same form, as in Nos. 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8 and 11. Repetition 
round a center is represented by Nos. 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 21, 22, 
23 and 24. The designs aside from those already mentioned are intended 
to cover an entire surface, many of them being serviceable for tiling. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 29 







13 





17 




18 





19 




20 



^^ 



21 




Designs in Form and Color. 



30 HELPS FOB UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 














3S 36 

Designs in Form and Color. 



37 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 31 



CHAPTER YI. 

4 

STICK LAYING. 

The use of straight sticks in assorted lengths, to represent straight lines 
as a simple means of delineating a multitude of forms and also, later on, 
for making forms to be drawn with the pencil, has become very popular 
with progressive primary teachers. This occupation is borrowed from the 
eighth kindergarten gift. As the tablets of the seventh gift represent the 
surfaces surrounding and limiting the solids, so the sticks are used to 
represent the lines bounding those surfaces. 

The stick leads us on another step from concrete material toward the 
realm of abstractions, furnishing the material to draw the outlines of rec- 
tilinear objects by bodily lines as perfectly as it can be done. 

The sticks are favorites with the children. Their imagination sees in 
them a variety of objects — in fact they are the representations of every- 
thing straight — and the world of occupation furnished by them is a con- 
tinual wonder to the teacher who learns how to use them aright. With 
them the child can learn to count, to add, subtract, multiply and divide, 
and they also can be made to help him along several steps toward his 
drawing lessons.- 

Although the thin, square stick in common use has several edges and 
sides, yet if it is presented as the representation of a large line it will be 
so accepted without criticism. The sticks are in assorted lengths of from 
one inch to five inches, some of them being the diagonals of squares from 
one to four inches, and they are also furnished in three or six colors. 
With these simple sticks the terms horizontal, vertical, perpendicular, ob- 
lique to right or left etc, etc., may all be worked out by the pupils, the 
teacher meanwhile noting the results at a glance, and causing any neces- 
sary corrections to be made without the constant rubbing out which is 
necessary with slate and pencil. The advantages of the sticks over the 
pencil in the earliest stages is well described in the following testimony of 
Mrs. Eva D. Kellogg, now principal of the Sioux City la., training school, 
regarding an experience which she had some years since : — 

"Vertical and horizontal lines had been before teacher and pupil for 
several days, till the teacher was positively certain that they were under- 
stood by the class, whether in window-sash or slate-frame. Still when the 
pencil attempted to reproduce the simplest designs by their use, confusion 
ensued, and straight lines of any kind were an impossibility. She went 
to her desk, took out kindergarten gift No. 8, and silently distributed the 



32 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

bright colored sticks among the delighted, wondering children. 'Now 
give me two verticals,' said the teacher, and the dullest pupil in the class 
had two parallel perpendiculars before him at once. Horizontals followed 
equally correct, and by dictation alone were boxes and chairs made by wee 
people who have never been able to follow a direction before. One little 
fellow, who had seemed to be an embodiment of stolidity, seized upon 
those attractive invitations to activity as a duck would splash into the first 
water she ever saw, and astonished the teacher with such accuracy of eye- 
measurement and deftness of touch that her respect for the future artisan 
went up at once. 'Shall I ever learn to let these children learn to do 
their work themselves with the blessed help of attractive objects, and not 
try to force them into my way of doing things ?' she thought as she 
gathered up the big bunch of delicate sticks, not one of which was broken 
or injured. Something else be sides lines was taught that day, and the 
children were not the only learners." 

The squared tops of the regular kindergarten tables are very valuable 
for guides in symmetrical designing with sticks, whenever they can be se- 
cured in the school room. But a convenient substitute, which can be af- 
forded by everybody is found in the squared enameled cloth, with black 
back-ground and red lines. By covering the desk of each pupil with a 
piece of this cloth of the proper size during the time of the stick-laying 
exercise the teacher easily secures the required conditions for doing that 
sort of work to advantage, 

There is another method of obtaining guides for designing with the 
sticks. Let the most advanced children in the higher grades carefully 
rule sheets of heavy paper, nearly as large as the desk-tops, in one-inch 
squares, an occupation which will give them excellent practice in the line 
of manual training. 

Another excellent use of the sticks is to explain what an angle is. It 
is difficult to make a child comprehend that an angle is the divergence of 
two lines rather than the surface between them, but if two sticks are held 
before the pupils with the lower ends in contact and the upper ends sepa- 
rated and the statement is made that the angle is the "opening" between 
the lines, and at the same time the sticks are made to open and close — 
thereby conveying a practical idea of the opening as distinct from a sur- 
face — a much clearer idea of the angle is presented to the child's mind 
than can possibly be imparted by simply making him familiar with lines 
on a surface. 

After the simple geometrical figures have been constructed with the 
sticks many forms of beauty and life can be made. Valuable suggestions 
for using the sticks can be found in The Paradise of Childhood, with a 
hundred and twenty-five illustrations of designs. 

The sticks having thus served their purposes for the elementary con- 
struction of forms, the forms so made and many others may now be used 



A MANUAIr OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 33 

as models for drawing. For a surface on which to make the drawing 
give the pupil paper covered with small dots in one-inch squares. These 
dots correspond with the crossings of the lines on the desk or table-top, 
on which the sticks are laid, and thus serve as a guide to help the young 
draftsman locate his lines. 

Stick laying is capable of such varied use by way of instructing and 
diverting little children that it is neither necessary or possible to give 
more than the merest hints regarding it in a chapter like this. The advan- 
tage of the sticks in connection with the teaching of number-writing is 
fully set forth in Chapter XII. The accompanying page of diagrams 
will suggest some of the many ways in which the sticks can be laid, so 
as to brush away from the minds of the children various elementary 
difficulties regarding vertical, horizontal, oblique and perpendicular lines, 
right obtuse and acute angles and other geometrical forms. The figure 
included in Nos. 1 to 11 illustrate vertical, horizontal, oblique and per- 
pendicular lines and those in Nos. 12 to 21 different geometrical forms 
embracing right, oblique and acute angles. In stick laying many forms 
of life and beauty are wrought out by the children, and in making 
them the greatest possibilities of invention are opened to the youthful 
minds and little fingers. In the diagrams Nos. 22 to 28 represent forms 
of life and Nos. 29 to 35 forms of beauty, or decorative designs. 
Whenever the child forms a design worth preserving the teacher should 
take pains to let him draw it, either on plain paper or the netted 
kinderarten drawing-paper. In this case the sticks become the model 
from which to make the drawings. The diagrams are drawn about one- 
eighth the size of the actual design, the shortest lines representing sticks 
an inch long, the other lines being in like proportion. 
The Colored Sticks. 

The colored sticks are sold by the thousand, in packages of one, two, 
three, four and five-inch lengths, assorted colors, and in boxes containing 
lengths, assorted, from one to five inches. They can also be bought in 
polished wooden boxes, which hold fifteen hundred, assorted lengths and 
colors. They are prepared by a peculiar process which insures a beauti- 
ful coloring. 

The Plain Diagonal Sticks. 

There is also a demand for sticks cut to the diagonals of various 
figures, and they are finished in the ordinary wood color, to distinguish 
them from the other sticks of nearly the same length. 

They are sold in the same way, as regards length, as the colored sticks 
although the price is less. 



34 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 




D 



Eg" \s\ D"] 




SUGGESTIONS FOli STICK LAYING. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 35 



CHAPTEE YII. 
OARD-BOARD SEWING. 

Little fingers should be taught to handle the needle deftly, irrespective 
of sex or future prospects, just as they should the pencil, thereby gaining 
a nicety of touch which may help them in the handling of many another 
tool in after years. The small boy, in his quiet moments, can have just 
as good a time with needle and thread and lay just as broad foundations 
for his future usefulness as does his little sister. Under the old system 
of "busy work," which accepted almost any suggestion tending to make 
that low-caste individual who is always dealing out "some mischief still" 
keep his distance, a few boys have, in early childhood, pieced patch-work 
quilts which kept them warm during a college course. But these lines 
must not be constructed as a plea for a universal primary sewing-school 
with utilitarian ends in view, for the present teachers of little folks de- 
mand such busy work as shall educate the pupil to appreciate artistic forms, 
as well as train him in manual dexterity. 

From all of the many helps which are within reach of the average teach- 
er she can make few better selections than to choose the sewing cards for 
her youngest pupils. The children readily learn to use them, take delight 
in the occupation and gain much from its pursuit. 

The Primary Pricked Sewing Cards. 

These cards are pricked in squares of quarter-inches over the whole 
surface, which can always be used to advantage in connection with form 
study and drawing. The geometrical solids are now made the basis of all 
intelligent work in drawing, and the lines and plain figures found in these 
solids can be reviewed on the cards, and patterns worked out which have 
been previously designed with sticks and tablets. Such sewing is a di- 
rect outgrowth of form study and drawing, and is profitably taught in the 
time of di-awing, until the pupils are able to work independently, when 
it becomes valuable as busy work. In all netted and dotted guides for 
busy work there is a tendency to introduce intermediate divisions of the 
inch other than halves, quarters, eighths and sixteenths, but it is always 
undesirable to do this, on general principles, as these are the sub-divisions 
found on all common measures. 

The diagram of designs for sewing which accompanies this chapter is 
intended to furnish suggestive exercises, which can be constantly varied 
to suit the teacher's taste. The designs are supposed to teach the forma- 
tion of the following lines and figures : — 



36 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 




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17 




18 



SUGGESTIONS FOB THE PBIMABY PBIGKED SEWING CABDS. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. '61 

No. 1, Horizontal and Vertical lines. 

" 2, Squares, a combination of the Horizontal and Vertical lines. 

" 3, Oblique lines. Combinations of Oblique lines. 

" 7, Squares and Developments of Surfaces of Cubes. 

" 4, Combinations of Squares with Diagonals. 

" 5, Oblongs. Combinations of Oblongs in forms of life. 

" 6, Patterns or Developments of Surfaces of Square Prisms. 

" 8, Three views of Square and Triangular Prisms. 

" 9, Combinations of Triangles and Oblongs in forms of life. 

" 10, Combinations of all forms previously used into forms of life. 
Nos. 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, Oblongs, Squares and Angles repeated horizon- 
tally. 

Nos, 16, Surface Covering. 

Nos. 17, 18, Large figures illustrating repetition around a center, and 
various forms of beauty or ornaments. 

These designs when finished should not be the result of chance combi- 
nations obtained by filling in and rubbhig out lines until a pattern happens 
to appear. On the contrary, the principles of design should govern the 
simplest work. The borders in lines and angles should be planned by 
using pegs or sticks ; surface decorations and repetitions around a center 
by the use of tablets. 

This work should also aid in the study of color. When two colors are 
used great care must be taken to develop a feeling for good combinations. 
Some teachers believe that it is better to use a standard with a soft gray, 
or a standard with a shade or tint of itself, than to combine contrasting 
colors, maintaining that the sharp contrast of complementary colors is to 
be avoided, even in this stage of primary work. This is more fully con- 
sidered in Chapter XI. An intelligent use of these cards will give the 
children manual dexterity, some feeling for color, and practice in combin- 
ing known forms according to the principles of design. They are com- 
monly sold in boxes containing one hundred cards. 

Embroidery Design Cards. 
These cards are four inches by five and a half and are printed in a large 
variety of outline designs, with a dot at each point where a stitch is to be 
taken. A hole must be pricked through each dot before the sewing be- 
gins. The cards are put up in envelopes, fourteen in each, and sold in 
seven sets, being grouped as follows : — 
No. 1, Animals. 
" 2, Animals. 

" 3, Figures of Children, etc. 
" 4, Figures of Children, etc. 
'• 5, Flowers. 

" 6, Familiar objects. Hat, Drum, Vase, Pear, etc. 
" 7, Assorted designs from the other groups. 



38 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 




SUGGESTIONS FOR THE EMBBOIDEBY DESIGN CABDS. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 39 

Embroidery design cards are a very popular feature of the kindergarten 
system. Tlie selections just mentioned are printed on white card-board, 
but of a cheaper quality than the fine bristol board used by kindergart- 
ners. In place of the costly embroidery silk which has been regarded 
necessary in kindergarten practice there is provided a line of Embroidery 
Cotton, in the six standard colors and a soft gray, especially adapted for 
use in primary and ungraded schools. 

In order to prick a hole at each dot neatly and properly the card is laid 
on a piece of thick felt and a strong needle, inserted in a handle, is forced 
through the card into the felt, holes of uniform size for the reception of 
the threaded needle being formed by the process. After a little practice 
the children learn to do the pricking very nicely and it is always a pleas- 
ant occupation for them. The embroidery cotton is on spools containing 
about three hundred yards each, assorted in red, orange, yellow, green, 
blue, purple and gray. The spools are sold singly or by the dozen, and 
so are the pricking needles and cushions. The latter can be bought with 
or without stiff card-board backs. The sewing is done with any ordinary 
needle suitable for the thread. 

On the second page of illustrations accompanying this chapter will be 
found a number of designs taken from the envelope just mentioned. The 
top row indicates those which were selected from No. 1 envelope, the 
second row those taken from No. 2, and so on down. The pictures in the 
first row are represented as having been TW)rked, while the others are 
shown with the dots for pricking, preparatory for working. 

"With this modified material the expense is so reduced that the occupa- 
tion, considering its value as an educator, has become one of the most 
economical that can be made a part of primary work. The delight at- 
tending such an occupation, like many good things in life, must be wit- 
nessed to be appreciated, and it must also be tested by its fruits before its 
worth as a training for the hand and eye and all the perceptive faculties 
can be justly estimated. 

Cooley's Writing Embroidery Cards. 

The chief design of these cards is to fix in the child's mind a correct 
immage of the form of the script letters, while furnishing him ag^-eeable 
seat work. The methods and materials are about the same as those used 
with the embroidery design, cards. While the pupils are stitching the out- 
lined form of the letter on the card training in both color and form can 
readily be given them, as well as in varieties of lines and curves. To se- 
cure the best results the teacher should instruct them to work the type- 
forms of the letter in one color and the remainder in some- other color 
which is suitable to be combined with it. For example, the i form is found 
in i, u, w and t, the pointed oval appears in a, d, g and g, the loop in I, b, 
7i, h and/, and the union of right and left curves with the main slant in 
a?, w, m, p and h, 



40 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 




When the children are working the i or the u the teacher can direct 
them to work all the main slants in one color and the right curves in some- 
thing else which will harmonize with it. - "When the first or long left curve 
is used, as in the a or d, they may be required to use different colors for 
each of the different kinds of lines, right curves, left curves and main 
slants, so as to fix in their minds what lines form the letter, and just 
where they come. 

Again, in order to lead the child to see that the same form is often re- 
peated in certain letters, it is well to take up the letters in some order 
which will clearly show this fact and have the central form stitched in one 
color and the rest of the letter in another. 

The collection for school use consists of sixty-eight different cards, 
representing the small letters and the capitals of the alphabet, and also 
sixteen duplicates of the capitals, so as to include all the business and 
standard forms which are approved by the best teachers of writing. 

These cards are cut at an angle of 52°, a shape which reminds the pu- 
pils of the standard slant of the letters, and the comparative height of the 
various letters is kept before the child by the light horizontal rulings 
across the face of each card, which indicate the spaces by which the height 
of the letters is governed, the base line being made heavier than the 
others. 

The different cards are put up in boxes containing fifty letters of a 
kind, and will also be sold in bulk. In ordering capitals teachers must be 
careful to use the numerals indicated in the above illustrations. If for 
instance, the standard form of the letter A is wanted, the order should 
read " A '>" but if the business form is required, it should read "A ^- " 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 



41 



CHAPTEK YIII. 



PAPER WEAVING. 



The weaving together of strips of colored paper so as to construct sym- 
metrica>l and beautiful figures is one of the most useful kindergarten occu- 
pations and is well adapted to the first and second years of primary school 
work, both as a discipline to the children in nice manipulations and in 
forming artistic combinations, and also as an amusement. 

The foundation of each design in all this weaving is a sheet of paper slit- 
ted into strips, which are joined by a margin at each end, this sheet of pa- 
per being called a mat. Into this mat are woven narrow strips of paper 
of a different color. The weaving is done with the aid of a flat steel nee- 
dle, having a spring catch to receive and hold one end of the strip to be 
woven into the mat. By passing the needle over and under the strips of 
the. mat the strip attached to the needle is readily and quickly woven into 
the pattern. 

The sheet of strips to be woven into the mat is called a fringe, because 
the loose strips composing it were formely joined only at one end. Now, 
however, for convenience in handling, the strips are joined at both ends 
and are really mats, except that the border of the fringe is not as wide as 
that of the mat. Before using the fringe, it is desirable to separate the 
strips from each other with scissors, as fast as they are wanted, and not 
undertake to tear them apart. 

A mat partly woven, in the simplest 
pattern, is shown in figure 1. The 
black spaces represent the mat or slit- 
ted sheet, and the white spaces the 
strips woven into the mat. These 
strips are supposed to enter at the low- 
er edge of the mat as placed on the 
page, always starting under the mar- 
ginal strip, which is usually wider than 
the slits. Beginning at the left lower 
corner, the first white strip goes under 
not only the margin but also under the 
lower strip of the mat, then over one 
strip of the mat and then under one, continuing over one and under the 
next to the upper edge of the mat. The next white strip goes under the 
margin and over the first strip of the mat, and then under and over as be- 
fore, and so the alternation is kept up throughout the design. 




Fig. 1. 



42 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



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DSSIGNS FOR PAPEB WEAVING. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 43 



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PATTERNS FOB ADVANCED PAPER WEAVING. 



44 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

As there are but two possible ways to proceed, either to lift up or press 
down the mat-strips with the needle, the course of a single weaving-strip 
is clearly expressed in a simple' forinula, up and down, up being indicated 
by (u) , when the mat-strip is thrown up, i. e,, when the weaving-strip 
goes under the mat-strip, and down indicated by (d) , when the weaving- 
strip goes over the mat-strip. The continued repetition of a formula 
would not, however, produce a weaving pattern, but simply stripes which 
would slip over each other without remaining in place. To secure a pat- 
tern there must be a combination of two or , more formulas, and such a 
combination is called a scheme. The making of formulas is an easy mat- 
ter, but the combination of formulas into schemes requires considerable 
skill, ranging from the ability of the kindergarten pupil to the artistic ex- 
perience of the designer in carpet or other textile weaving. 

To illustrate the meaning of a scheme let us turn to the first pattern 
shown in No. 1 on the page of "Designs for Paper Weaving," which is 
produced with the scheme lu. Id, and Id, lu, i. e., one up and one down 
f6r the first strip and one down and one up for the second strip. In this 
waj^ all varieties of patterns are readily expressed by schemes and are 
therefore easily preserved. In design No. 2 the scheme is 2u, 2d, and 2d, 
2u. In No. 3 we combine Nos. 1 and 2 and the scheme is lu, 2d, and 
Id, 2u. Nos. 4 and 5 are other combinations of 1 and 2. If further de- 
tails of the formulas and schemes involved in mat weaving are desired 
they may be found in The Paradise of Childhood, which covers very fully 
all the gifts and occupations of the Froebel kindergarten. 

Fig. 2. 



Fig. 3. 



Fig. 4. 

The illustrations of the most approved weaving needle as shown above 
indicate how it is used. In figure 2 we have a general view of the nee- 
dle. Figure 3 shows how the paper is inserted, and figure 4 the threaded 
needle ready for use. 

In threading the needle it may conveniently be held in the left hand with 
the hook-end away from the body and the opening on the top, the thumb 
being placed on the spring so that it can be depressed and the throat 
opened. Take the strip of paper in the right hand, the under side up, and 
place the end in the open throat by passing it away from the body down 
the incline of the spring into the throat ; then bring the paper in line with 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 4o 

the needle and release the spring. Next pass the right thumb forward 
under the strip and fold it over the hook of the needle. 

Having woven a strip into the mat, in order to release the needle place 
a finger of the right hand on the end of the strip, near the needle. Then 
with the left hand turn the needle over, toward the mat, and push away 
from the mat. Or else slide the thumb and fore-finger of the left hand 
down to the spring, release it and slip it off side-ways or toward the mat. 

A good needle must be easily threaded, must hold the paper strii? se- 
curely, and must, as far as possible, avoid all projecting corners, on nee- 
dle or paper, which may catch on the strip of the mat in the process of 
weaving. 

The ' 'Bradley" needle can be threaded with the eyes shut and is strong 
and durable, being especially adapted to primary schools. 

In addition to the "Bradley" weaving needle, illustrated on a preceding 
page, the "Ball" and the "Improved" needles are accepted as useful 
weaving instruments by teachers who are practiced in the art. 

A mat that has been neatly woven can be finished for preservation by 
carefully gumming the ends of the strips to the under side of the margins 
and trimming them off just inside the edge of the mat. 

In the use of this material, as with all such work, the methods employed 
must be modified by the teacher to suit the conditions under which she is 
working. In some cases class work may be done entirely by dictation, 
with the help of formulas. In other cases the material should be used as 
individual busy work from patterns. Both methods are valuable and there 
may be a difference of opinion as to which is productive of the most good. 
By dictation the design appears gradually and the child is trained to fol- 
low explicit directions. In working from copy the pupil must study out 
the processes necessary to produce the completed design before him. In 
both methods the education in color, design and manual dexterity is equal- 
ly valuable. 

The child should at first be directed in the selection of colors, and later 
should occasionally be allowed to make his own choice, but the results 
should be commented on by the teacher, good selections being commended 
and bad combinations criticised, and both made the text for a few words 
of instruction on harmonies and contrasts of colors. In form and color 
education no lesson is so effective as the comparison of good and bad work. 
With young children the colors may be few and decided, and, as the col- 
or sense develops, shades and tints can be introduced. Invention in de- 
sign may sometimes be permitted, after the child has become familiar 
with the principles underlying the disigns already worked out. 

After a little practice the children take great interest in this occupation 
and can soon learn to make designs which they delight to give their friends. 
The chief value. of all this kind of amusement is that it resolves itself into 
elementary manual training and greatly aids in the culture of the youthful 



46 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 





S-1 



0-2 



E3H 

■Oil ■UH 

5-3 5-4 








11-3 




6-1 



6-2 





6-4 



6-5 



6-e 







6-7 



6-8 



7-1 



7-2 









7-3 



7-4 



7-6 



7-6 







7-7 7-8 7-9 7'W 

Diagrams of Mrs. Hailmann's Graded Mats. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 47 







8-1 



8-a 



8-3 



8-4 







8-5 



8-6 



8-r 



e-8 





8-1 



0-2 





9-8 



8-4 






8-6 



9-6 



8-7 




9-8 







10-1 



lo-a 



ia-3 



10-4 







\o-fi IO-6 10-7 «>-e 

Diagrams of Mrs. Hailnaann's Graded Mats. 



48 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

hand and eye. Two things should always be required in connection with 
the weaving — neatness and accuracy. 

Paper weaving in the ungraded -school must be made very simple at first, 
because of the lack of that personal instruction which is a marked feature 
of the kindergarten system. The lessons must also be short, so that each 
one can be finished at a single sitting, while the purpose and thought of 
the pupil are fresh. 

Mrs. Hailmann's Graded Mats. 

As the result of long experience in the adaptation of kindergarten meth- 
ods and material to primary work Mrs Hailmann has devised an admira- 
ble series of weaving problems, combining numbers, color and designing, 
and arranged with special reference to the growing capacities of the child. 
The scheme includes six kinds of mats, each four by four inches, with a 
cut surface three inches square. The first is divided into five strips, the 
second into six, and so on to ten. As the number of strips increases, the 
width, of course, decreases. 

These mats are sold in packages containing suflScient material for a les- 
son in any ungraded school-room. The colors of the paper are assorted, 
with the shades and tints of the six colors, and also a gray. In making 
combinations of colors the teacher should select complementary colors, or 
else a color with a gray or a color with its shade or tint. 

In order to bring the price of these mats within the reach of every un- 
graded school they are cut in engine colored papers and by putting them 
up in one assortment they can be made economically in large quantities. 
But teachers must remember that they cannot be furnished in any other 
cuttings or colors. 

To distinguish this series of mats from the other varieties they are des- 
ignated by X, the individual numbers also being added, as X — 5, X — 6, 
etc. The last figure of the combination shows how many strips there are 
in mats of that assortment. 

As the colors obtained in engine colored papers are not as good as those 
which can be secured in coated papers, packages like X — 10 mats in coat- 
ed papers and standard colors, with a shade and tint of each and gray, 
white and black are also sold. These packages each contain twenty-five 
mats and fringes and are marked Z — 10. With this assortment the teach- 
er can give the older pupils better color lessons than with the rest of the 
series. If larger mats and special varieties of color are wanted an ex- 
tended line will be found in the regular kindergarten stock. In ordering 
Mrs. Hailmann's mats teachers should be careful to state that they belong 
to the X series and also give the number of strips required, or say that 
"Z — 10" is wanted. The simplicity and utility of Mrs. Hailmann's mats, 
viewed from an educational standpoint, can readily be understood by re- 
ferring to the page of diagrams' which is devoted to them. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 49 



CriAPTEK IX. 
PAPER FOLDING. 

In both paper folding and paper cutting, as it is practiced in many of 
our primary schools, we have one of the most valuable contributions from 
the kindergarten to the primary school, because it is capable of such ex- 
tension and expansion that it can be adapted to pupils of different ages 
and classes and carried up into higher grades than some of the other kin- 
dergarten occupations. That the schools of the present day are indebted 
almost exclusively to the kindergarten for this concrete work is evident to 
all who are familiar with Froebel's career. He taught the study of things 
as well as words, and from him has come all the manual work that is now 
found in the primary grades. This manual work has come down from the 
work-shop to the higher grades, through the technical and trades schools, 
and has come up to the primary schools from the kindergarten. And the 
progressive teachers of this generation, who appreciate these facts, are 
actively engaged in " forging the connecting link between the kindergarten 
and the trades schools or the work-shop," working down through the high 
school and up through the primary and grammar school. 

Paper folding has particular interest for teachers above the kindergarten 
grades because of its direct bearing upon form and drawing and because 
it also helps develop habits of neatness, exactness, order and observation. 
While the kindergarten gives the perfect forms for folding, square, circle, 
triangle, etc., there is no reason vrhy the children in higher grades should 
not make the forms as well as fold them. By so doing they come to ap- 
preciate the difference between their own attempts and the perfect pat- 
tern by comparison, and their ideal grows as they surmount difficulties 
which at the outset were inappreciable to their untrained eyes. 

The following scheme for paper folding has reference mainly to its 
utility in Connection with di'awing. 

We have noticed in stick laying that while sticks are models of the 
lines which form the outlines of the figures to be drawn, they do not really 
present the models of the surfaces of forms in two dimensions, and in look- 
ing for such a model nothing seems more suitable than a piece of paper, 
which for added interest may be of some pleasing color and for education 
in form and dimension may be square and just four inches on each side. 
Give each child a piece of paper and as far as convenient allow each to 
choose a color, thus encouraging the will-power in making a selection and 
giving variety and added interest to the occupation. 



50 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

The teacher also has a paper, and at this stage in the exercises a little 
catechising as to form and size and possibly colors may be profitable, the 
amount and nature of this work depending entirely on the ages and pre- 
vious condition of the pupils. A kindergarten graduate will know all 
about it, while another of the same age will know nothing about it. Now 
let each child make a drawing of the piece of paper, in the center of his 
sheet of drawing-paper, approximate accuracy being secured by allowing 
him to lay the piece of colored paper in the center of the sheet and make 
a small pencil-dot at each corner. For this and many other exercises in 
primary drawing practice drawing-paper printed with dots in one-inch 
squares is very useful. 

When all the children have drawn the square more or less correctly see 
that each has done fairly well according to age, helping any who may 
have been unable to understand the general instructions. Next tell them to 
fold their paper from side to side, forming an oblong four inches by two in- 
ches, and to open the papers ; then ask what new feature appears in the paper 
or model that was not there before. Then find a seam or crease in each 
paper, which they have made, each for himself. Now something has been 
made, they have added something to the model. Tell them to represent 
that crease on the drawing. 

In like manner dictate various other foldings, giving very clear direc- 
tions which cannot be misunderstood and requiring close attention while 
dictating ; then give the pupils time to do their work without further talk 
and with the understanding that the order is not to be repeated until all 
have had ample time to execute it. Then the teacher may repeat the order, 
at the same time folding her paper plainly before the pupils so that any 
that did not understand her may now perform the operation by imitation, 
and thus keep along with the class. 

Very pleasing designs result from successive foldings, as shown in the 
accompanying diagrams. As many or as few folds may be made as suit 
the conditions in each case. 

Figure 1 shows one fold, from side to side, figure 2 represents the same 
repeated at right angles to the first. In figure 3, four additional folds are 
mdicated, each corner having been folded to the center. These three 
figures form a succession of six separate foldings — each to be made inde- 
pendently. In figure 4, four folds are added to figure 3, two of the corners 
being folded to their opposite diagonals and the other corners to their own 
diagonals. 

This folding will be readily understood by trial, but is one of the most 
difficult for the children to execute correctlj^ and ought not to be used 
until after figures 7 and 8. With the above explanations figures 5, 6 and 
7 will be readily understood. Figure 8 is developed from figure 3 by 
folding each side to the center lines, making four foldings, and then mak- 
ing the same folds as described for figure 4. This figure, although more 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 



51 



complicated than figure 4 is less difficult, because the four diagonals have 
been bisected by the rectangular folds, thus giving definite points at which 






to space the corners in making the two long diagonal folds. Figure 9 is 
seemingly complicated, but the following method of folding is by no 
means intricate : — 

To figure 2 add the foldings of figure 6, and then fold each corner to 
the center of the opposite sides. Thus the lower right-hand corner is car- 
ried to the center of the top side, and then to the center of the left-hand 
side. These two folds applied to each corner, making eight in all, com- 
plete the figure. The drawing of this figure is very simple, after the sides 
of the square are first accurately divided into eight equal parts of half an 
inch each. It is not very difficult, with the dotted paper in one-inch 
squares, even without any measurements, and the necessary one-half inch 
spaces can be accurately obtained if the use of a rule is allowed. 

All these figures should be folded and drawn by the teacher before dic- 
tating to the children, that all the difficulties may be encountered in ad- 
vance. Figure 9 should not be attempted until all the others have been 
well mastered by the pupils. Circles and equilateral triangles may follow 
the squares for variety, but the square is more simple and useful, although 
the circle gives opportunity for lessons on the angles. The amount of in- 
struction in form and color that may be worked out of a lesson of this 



52 HELPS FOB UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

kind is very surprising to one who has never given any thought to the 
subject. 

Ready-cut material for paper folding consists of square, rectangular, 
triangular and circular pieces. Some of it is made from paper that is 
stained throughout its entire thickness, being alike on both sides, known 
as Engine Colored paper, while the balance is Coated paper, one side be- 
ing colored and the other white. The coated papers have brighter colors 
than are possible in the engine colored varieties. 

The papers are cut very accurately, so that when they are folded the 
lines and corners will correspond, which is a necessary condition to secure 
connect work from the pupils. They are sold in packages of one hundred 
squares, each being four by four, or one hundred equlateral triangles, 
four inches on the side, or as many circles, four inches in diameter, all 
three in engine colored papers, these same lots being duplicated in coated 
papers. The same papers may be bought in full sheets or accurately cut 
to other sizes, if ordered in quantities. 

"What has been said in this chapter about paper folding may serve as a 
hint of its possibilities to inquiring minds, but must not be regarded as 
an adequate exposition of the subject. A skillful manipulation of the pa- 
pers under the nimble fingers of children who are wisely directed will 
produce many artistic forms, as well as copies of baskets, pocket-books, 
shopping bags and not a few articles which figure prominently in real life. 
The possibilities of this occupation are well set forth in a book on " Pa- 
per Folding and Cutting," published by Milton Bradley Co. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 53 



. CHAPTEE X. 
PAPER CUTTING. 

In the kindergarten, paper cutting is based on the previous folding, 
so that the cutting produces a series of units, and then the best results 
depend on the proper mounting of the several pieces to form an artistic 
and symmetrical figure. For schools the possibilities of this Froebel oc- 
cupation are unlimited, when the teachers become interested and experi- 
enced in it. In this mounting of the various units the artistic combina- 
tions of color are most important and the opportunity for imparting and 
testing color-sense is all that could be desired. 

The material for paper cutting in a school which includes all grades is 
colored and white paper, a pair of scissors for each child and occasionally 
a pin. The best way to secure the scissors, when they are not supplied 
by the city or town and the teacher does not choose to meet the expense 
herself, is to levy a tax of five cents for the use,of scissors on each pupil 
in the school. When children bring their own scissors all kinds and sizes 
may be expected and every kind of work will result. When the pupils 
are allowed to bring their own, each pair should be marked by attaching to 
one of the handles a tag bearing their owner's name. Time is saved if the 
scissors belonging to each row of seats are kept by themselves, either in 
boxes, cloth cases or bundles fastened with rubber bands. While not in 
use during the exercises they should be laid on the right-hand side of the 
desk. 

Children cannot use scissors handily without being taught, any more 
than they can a knife and fork. They must be shown how to put the 
thumb and middle finger into the right and left handle of the scissors, and 
as preliminary practice for this work, it is well to let them acquire facility 
in the use of this new tool by cutting colored and black and white pictures 
from cards, illustrated newspapers, magazines, etc. 

Paper cutting when it is made a part of the study of the geometric solids 
becomes a means of expresssing the shapes of the faces. The fact that 
each face of his cube is square impresses itself on the child's mind when 
he cuts six squares of paper to fit the faces of the cube. The first aim 
of these cutting lessons from faces is to fix the facts of shape, and the 
child should at the same time observe closely and express accurately 
what he discovers. 

Suppose the square prism has been modeled in clay by the youngest 
children and the faces are to be studied. Each child has a prism two 



54 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

inches by four and a strip of paper two inches wide and of indefinite 
length. Find an edge of paper that fits an edge of the prism, fold the pa- 
per on one face, crease and cut. Repeat this operation for the other 
three oblong faces of the prism. Let the children discover that one ob- 
long face will give the end faces and cut these faces from a fifth oblong. 
Develop the idea of pattern by fitting these six faces about the prism and 
then laying them so that they will make the pattern of the prism. Later 
on, the shapes of the faces may be cut by looking at the solids and 
cutting to express proportion. The scissors may be used in these exer- 
cises as freely as the pencils. 

Experience proves that elementary designing in the primary and lower 
grades is best taught by the use of colored papers. In this line of work 
units are thought of as wholes and their beauty or defects stand out as 
they never do when they are built up by drawing only. If we watch a 
class ai'ranging a pattern of paper units according to the simplest princi- 
ples of design and another class who merely draw then- units, meanwhile 
erasing their work and trying this and that effect, we can readily decide 
as to the advantages attending the use of colored papers in designing. 
Elementary designings may be defined as an exercise in arranging given 
forms in new and original combinations. The simplest principles of de- 
sign to be taught and illustrated in the work of the children are repeti- 
tion, repetition and alternation, repetition around a center, repetition to 
cover a surface, the character of the design to be determined by the 
position of a surface. Walter Smith says that one of the greatest faults 
of elementary designing is over-elaboration. The desire to beautify by 
multiplying lines and figures must be guarded against, first, last and 
always. 

In teaching elementary designing the teacher should first select the 
form to be filled either by giving out a background of suitable size for the 
units which she proposes to use, or by drawing the outline of the back- 
ground. This rule should be observed even when the youngest children are 
pasting together borders of parquetry or rosettes. The best backgrounds 
for repetition around a center are squares, quatrefoils, triangles, trefoils, 
hexagons, octagons and circles. Backgrounds must be well-covered by 
units, but should not be crowded. The units ought to occupy about two- 
thirds of the inclosed space and should not come quite to the edge of the 
background. 

When units are repeated about a center they must be held together by 
a central form. This center gives unity and strength to the design. 
If the center simply touches the units the whole design must necessarily 
lack that strength found in a design where a small part of the unit is covered 
by the center. The diameter of the center should be about one-fifth of the 
diameter of the background. When units are repeated horizontally the 
character of the unit determines whether they need to be held together. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 55 

When units are repeated around a center the same number must govern 
every part of the design. A square having four sides requires four or 
eight units, and its center must also be divisible into four or eight equal 
parts. A circle is a suitable center, as it may contain any number of 
axes of symmetry. In hexagons, triangles and trefoils three or six units 
may be used with corresponding centers. Many good designs, even with 
teachers of experience, are spoiled by violations of this rule, because the 
child thinks it is a stroke of genius to place a hexagonal center on a 
square backgi'cund, or a pentagon on a triangle. 

The plain figures found in the solids are the first units to be considered 
in designing with colored papers. The parquetry circles, squares and tri- 
angles can be used with the youngest children, but in the second year the 
pupils should cut their own units. The teachers will be saved much time 
and trouble if packages of squares four or five inches in size be provided. 
If the whole square is not needed the material can be divided so as to be used 
economically. The circle, square and triangle should be followed by 
other symmetrical units. The rhombus, kite-shape and oval are excellent 
elementary forms, capable of many modifications. In modifying kite- 
forms conventionalized forms of natural leaves may be used. 

Lessons should also be given on cutting units. From oblongs of paper, 
proportion two by three, the teacher can first cut a few kite- forms while 
the class look on, meanwhile suggesting by her work some variations, 
and then she can provide each child with an oblong and let them do the 
cutting for themselves, making such criticisms as seem desu-able. 

In making surface designs it will be necessary to decide at the outset 
whether the surface is to be viewed in a vertical or horizontal position and 
to divide it into equal geometric spaces. Each of these spaces will be the 
background or field of the design. The top views of flowers, enlarged so 
as nearly to fill these spaces, are good units for these designs. Suppose, 
for example, that the surface is divided into squares, the top view of the 
syringa can be used to advantage. In triangles or hexagons the trillium, 
with its three petals finds an appropriate place, while any number of 
petals can easily be introduced within a circle, provided they are placed 
regularly on the surface. Sometimes the pattern is brought out well by 
grouping the units so near each other as to leave but little background 
exposed, while other units call for more visible background. 

While the use of colored papers affords the best means of teaching pu- 
pils to arrange " given forms in new and original combinations," it also 
gives to the average teacher her best opportunity to teach standard colors, 
shades, tints and hues, and to develop taste in combining colors. For an 
exhaustive treatment of these themes, paper folding and cutting, as well 
as the teaching of color, the reader is referred to the special books relat- 
ing to them, which have been already mentioned. 



56 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



CHAPTEK XI. 

DRAWING AND DRAWING IMPLEMENTS. 

Fifty years ago writing was tlie only manual occupation taught in the 
public schools of this country. Twenty-five years later some progressive 
"cranks" advocated the teaching of drawing — the only universal language 
— at public cost. But the teachers and school boards could see no place 
for the introduction of the "ornamental arts" in a course of study already 
overcrowded, and so went on with the established mental gymnastics in 
grammar, arithmetic and geography. Gradually a little drawing, in its 
least practical forms, was allowed to creep in, with great fear and tremb- 
ling Although mechanical and constructive drawing were admitted to be 
the most important it was supposed that only the ornamental and decorative 
could have a legitimate place in the school-room. 

Now the study of drawing is usually pursued on a much more scientific 
basis and its importance is everywhere conceded. If the methods of form 
study laid down in the early part of this work have been faithfully followed 
much has already been done in preparing the pupil to take up drawing. 
The main thing aimed at in teaching either free-hand or mechanical drawing 
is to make each line mean something. Unless the lines are alive with mean- 
ing the work has neither practical nor educational value. The handling 
of solids by each pupil is an absolute necessity in free-hand drawing, be- 
cause each one must discover with his own eyes the appearance of the 
edges to be represented. When a single model is placed before a class 
the pupils reason as to its appearance under imagined conditions, they do 
not see for themselves. Consequently the results from such teaching are 
but little better than copying would be. Drawing is the languagie in which 
the facts of the form to be made are stated, and the pupil must so thor- 
oughly master the language of those facts that he can reproduce in wood 
or metal the form described by the drawing. 

As in teaching of writing so in giving instruction in drawing, the use of 
some standard system of text-books is recommended. But in addition to 
such a system various helps are essential, some of which are named in 
the pages immediately following. 

Practice Drawing Paper. 

This is a tinted paper with fine pencil surface, on which is printed guide 
dots and lines, for pupils beginning to draw with lead pencils, each sheet 
being five inches square, with a four-inch surface for the drawing. This 
paper is designed to aid in teaching the children to move their pencils 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 57 

properly, as soon as they have learned that edges in the solid may be rep- 
resented by lines on paper. Many teachers have found that when plain 
paper is used under such circumstances half the time of the lesson must be 
spent in getting the class ready to draw in the same place at the same time. 
When this paper is used they will do well to remember that the pupils are 
simply learning to handle pencils. 

This paper is printed in two styles, No. 1 being for the practice of those 
children who are drawing straight lines, and No. 2 where circles are re- 
quired. Both contain a series of dots, placed one inch apart, in squares, 
and in one corner of No. 2 is printed a circle having a diameter of two 
inches. To teach verticle lines, with No. 1, for instance, proceed from 
first-upper point to first lower-point, moving over the intervening space 
without stopping. The horizontal and diagonal lines are drawn in the 
same way. See that fingers and wrists do not move, and that the whole 
arm is brought toward the body with a steady, sliding motion. This style 
is also employed to advantage in working angles and in dictation exercises. 

With the second style of paper the printed circles are to be used on the 
same principle as in a tracing-book. After moving the pencil over the 
circle many times, the same motion, guided by the dotted lines on the 
other part of the sheet, will produce very good circles, even in the hands 
of young children. 

When these simple exercises can be done with a reasonable degree of 
success on the printed papers, similar pieces of plain paper may be sub- 
stituted, on which pupils must judge of distance without the aid of the 
guide dots. 

These papers are utilized as practice paper to suplement the regular 
systems of drawing, or may be used in the lowest grades where no other 
drawing exercises are introduced. 

The Primary Dravting Tablets. 

All drawing is commonly divided into two classes, free-hand and instru- 
mental or mechanical. In free-hand drawing no instruments, such as com- 
passes, rules, etc., are allowable, while in mechanical drawing anything 
is permissible which helps secure the necessary accuracy, and proficiency 
in free-hand work is also a valuable acquisition and one that is often 
called into use. 

Decorative drawing is the making of artistic forms for the decoration or 
ornamentation of any object. As decorations or ornamental figures are 
very largely governed or bounded by geometrical figures, while the actual 
lines of the ornament must be free-hand, decorative drawing combines 
both free-hand and instrumental drawing. Simple decorative drawing can 
be made a very pleasing and valuable occupation for the little children and 
utilized as a high grade of busy work in the primary schools, even though 
there is no time for any extended instruction in this line. 

Bradley's Primary Drawing Tablets provide the young child with a per- 



58 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



fectly harmless and very serviceable set of instruments, for simple busy 
work, and also for establishing the working lines and geometrical figures 
within which to draw ornamental designs. 




8 9 10 II 12 13 

There are 13 of these tablets, as shown above, made from a very hard 
and finely-polished paper-board, which is exceedingly durable. The list 
follows : — 

No. 1. — 4-inch square, with 3-inch hole. 

No. 2. — 4-inch circle. 

No. 3. — 3-inch square, with 2-inch hole. 

No. 4. — 3-inch circle. 

No. 5. — 2-inch square, with 1-inch hole. 

No. 6. — 2 -inch circle. 

No. 7. — 1-inch circle. 

Nos. 8, 9, 10 and 11. — four kite-forms for locating units of form. 

No. 12.-45° triangle. 

No. 13.-30° and 60° triangle. 

No. 1 may be used for drawing a 4-inch square by marking around the 
outside of the tablet. The center of each side is indicated on the tablet 
and can be marked on the four sides before the tablet is removed from the 
paper. By using a ruler, lines can be drawn from the center of one side to 
the center of the opposite side, and also from corner to corner both ways, 
so that all of these lines will cross at one point. To do this accurately is 
no small problem for little hands, and the educational value of such work 
when successfully done is clearly manifest. 

No. 2 is a 4-inch circle, with a semi-circular hole at the center, two di- 
ameters of the circle being printed on the tablet, at right angles to each 
other, dividing the circumference into four equal parts and exactly locat- 
ing the center of the circle. The circumference is also graduated to form 
a protractor for marking the common angles of 90°, 60°, 45° and 30°. 
With this single tablet a perfect equilateral triangle, square, hexagon, or 
octagon may be inscribed in a circle four inches in diameter. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 



59 



Nos. 3 and 5 are similar to No. 1, but are three and two inches square 
respectively. 

Nos. 4 and 6 are smaller duplicates of No. 2, except that only the an- 
gles of the quadrant are indicated. 

Nos. 8 9, 10 and 11 are kite- form patterns for determining outlines for 
the units in a mutiple design or figure to be inscribed iu a polygon. Nos. 
12 and 13 are two draftsman's triangles, to be employed in connection 
with a foot-rule, or other straight edge, iu general work. 




7 8 9 

The above figures illustrate a few of the designs which can be made by 
using the tablets. The dotted lines in these diagrams represent the con- 
struction lines which the tablets provide and the solid lines show the com- 
pleted designs. In No. 1, to take the simplest illustration, the outline of 
the square is made by laying a square tablet on paper and marking round 
it. The center of each side of the design should then be indicated by 
placing a dot opposite the four cross-lines on the tablet. By removing 
the tablet and connecting the dots that are opposite each other with straight 
lines and also drawing diagonal lines from corner to corner, the center of 



60 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

the design is obtained, being at a point wliere the lines cross. With tab- 
let No. 5 draw a 1-inch circle at the center of the square, which is readily 
located by bringing the cross-lines to correspond with the lines already 
drawn on the paper from side to side of the square. The points where the 
circle intersects the two diagonals of the square indicate the corners of 
the small square which joins the four units of the design. 

We make design No. 2 in a similar way, but kite-form No. 10 of the 
tablets is used as a guide for the four units of the design, which are drawn 
free-hand, the kite-form being drawn in four times, as is shown by dotted 
lines in the upper quarter of the design. 

To draw No. 3 use tablet No. 2 for the outline circle, which is divided 
into three equal parts, as follows : Lay the tablet so as to bring the diam- 
eter of the central semi-circle on a horizontal line, as shown in the illustra- 
tion of the tablets ; then make a dot at the top of the vertical diameter and 
another at each of the 30° divisions in the two lower quadrants ; draw 
lines from each of the points to the center of the figure ; on each of these 
radii as a diameter draw a 2-inch circle with tablet No. 6 ; also draw on 
the same lines the three kite-forms with tablet No. 10 ; on these kite-forms 
inscribe free-hand the three units of the design as shown, connecting them 
at the center by the 1-inch circle. In order to locate this central circle 
exactly, two diameters should have been drawn at right angles to each 
other when the large protractor tablet was in place. But the circle can be 
located very closely by the eye, without these lines. 

No detailed explanation of the operations involved in drawing all the 
designs shown will be necessary, because a study of the figures will indi- 
cate how to do those which have not been mentioned. All of the nine de- 
signs and a multitude of others can be accurately drawn with the tablets. 
In No. 9 a slight modification in the use of the kite-forms is introduced 
to show that it is unuecessary that the inner point should always come ex- 
actly at the center of the circle, but may be placed anywhere on the ex- 
tension of its radial line. The kite-form is indicated once in each design, 
as are also a few of the construction lines. To avoid confusion in the 
finished drawings the construction lines should be made lightly and the 
finishing lines much more boldly. A careful study of the examples al- 
ready given will suggest many other designs which can be formed with 
equal facility by using the tablets. 

It has been urged that free-hand drawing should precede all mechanical 
or instrumental drawing, because of the training which it gives the hand. 
While it is true that the attempt to draw all geometrical figures free-hand 
is good, simply as practice, yet the moment such figures are made the ba- 
sis of other work they must be constructed with accuracy, otherwise they 
become a frightful source of error. If a decorative artist wishes to place 
a design within the bounds of a square, a triangle or circle, or any combi- 
nation of these or other geometrical figures, he first lays out the geomet- 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 



61 



rical figure and divides it with tlie proper instruments, square, compasses, 
ruler, etc., for tlie attempt to draw any of these figures by free-hand would 
be a miserable failure. Consequently it follows that to ask a child to draw 
a square and inscribe a circle therein by free-hand and then add some dec- 
orative design is demanding of him more than an expert artist will attempt, 
while to encourage him to believe that, at his best, the result is satisfact- 
ory is doing him an injustice and cultivating a slovenly habit. 

The Springfield Support For Drawing-models. 
While the elementary principles of free-hand and mechanical drawing 
may be for a time taught side by side without any special tools beyond the 
foot-rule and the pencil, the two paths very soon diverge so decidedly 
that it is useless longer to combine them. Hence it follows that special 
tools must be provided for the mechanical work. Certain instruments 
have been found necessary for accurate and rapid work by draftsmen, and 
man}^ drawing teachers believe that these same instruments' in their simp- 
lest forms should be placed in the hands of the pupil at the beginning of 
his course, instead of letting him blunder along without them until he 
reaches the higher grades. Now that form study has become an acknowl- 
edged and legitimate branch of every well-devised school course there is a 
necessity that the pupils' desks shall be properly equipped for the pursuit 
of this study, which is equally urgent with the demand that they shall be 
supplied with conveniences for writing. 




The Springfield Support for Drawing-models, shown in the above illus- 
tration, can be readily adjusted and also removed from the desk at pleas- 
ure. The neat wooden table on which the models lie, within easy reach 
of the pupil sitting at the desk, is supported by a wooden rod which pass- 
es through a hole in the top of the desk and also through the shelf under- 
neath. A metallic cam attached to the top of the desk, at the corner op- 
posite the ink-well, holds by friction the rod and the table at any desired 
height. The table can quickly be removed from the rod and may be placed 
in the desk, or collected with those from the other desks and kept in a 



62 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

suitable cupboard when not in use. The rod is then dropped to the level 
of the desk-top, so that nothing is seen above the desk. This device will 
be found particularly valuable in those schools where two or more pupils 
have to draw from the same set of models at the same time. 

The School Rule. 
The elementary principles of drawing may for a time be taught side by 
side, without any special tools, but very soon the two paths diverge so 
detidedly that it is useless longer to combine them. Certain instruments 
have been found necessary for accurate and rapid work by draftsmen, and 
many drawing teachers believe that these same instruments in their simp- 
lest forms should be placed in the hands of the pupil at the beginning of 
his course, instead of letting him blunder along without them until he 
reaches the higher grades. The School Rule is made of hard wood, grad- 
uated in sixteenths of inches, and in every way well-finished. There is 
nothing like it for standing the ordinary wear and tear of school-room 
service and giving the children in the primary grades an accurate idea of 
a foot. 

The Mechanic's Scale. 

I |i i i| i ii|iiiim|m|iii|iii|iii|iii|iii|iii|iii|l i i | l l l |l il|hi| ll l| lil|l [1| ^^ 



_ _ _ _ 5 6 7 S 

-^ I iiiiii Tiiii ii ji ii i,ii ii i ii , i iL4i.ia ij 1 .1 ri I ii iii ii i i iii ii i ii iii iiiiii i i i i ii UiJJLi i rim'iiii iii i i iii i ? l ii i iij ^^^^ ^ ^^^ ^ ^ 



One edge of The Mechanic's Scale is divided into sixteenths of inches, 
for ordinary use. On the other edge are twelve different divisions, from. 
5 to 54, accurately engraved by a screw machine, a variety found elsewhere 
only on expensive scales of the mechanic or draftsman. This rule is a 
very convenient help in any school-room, being especially useful in giving 
the children a definite idea of the minute fractions of an inch. 
The International Rule. 



' i'jMi | Myi | i |i iy ii M ii yMi | My i| i| i iy'ni|TPTTiTT i |'|i|iii|i|i | i!i|ji|ip,M,'|iw 



a313W01M i = SH31 3W0M'l 'M313W0133H l=sa313M°" ■M3 131»iy>l3QI'SM3i3IMOI (.n™'Jt6t'ol a313lf(l = SaTll3W10TOOi 

■UU^Wbjg I eT — ;; — 7, — ,, wsi^unss ji — - — r — - — ir— — — - — „, siijim 



-iL-r-r r r I- h ^ 'fe^^.s^.^ i,:i:,i:£i:a::j :; ,i..;iLi,,:K,,i,,s,, ,^ J 



On one edge of this rule inches and eighths are printed and the other 
edge contains the metric measure, while in the center is found the metric 
measures for long distances. The rule is valuable as a constant presen- 
tation of the principal quantities in the metric system, where it is taught, 
and gives a ready comparison of the two lineal measures. 

The Springfield Industrial Drawing Kit. 

Every draftsman finds a drawing-board a T-square and one or more tri- 
angles as essential to his work as are the scale of inches and the compas- 
ses, and the Springfield Industrial Drawing Kit has been devised to meet 
the wants of both the professional draftsman and the school pupil of any 
grade who aspires to mechanical drawing. 

As shown in Fig. 1 the No. 1 kit consists of a board about ten by 
twelve inches, to which a pad of drawing paper is fastened, and a wooden 
T-square and triangles of suitable size. The draftsman or architect at- 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 63 

taches the piece of paper on which he is working to his drawing-board by 
means of thumb-tacks, but this method has proved both expensive and 
annoying in the primary grades, and so the scheme of the pad has been de- 
vised. This pad is slightly glued to the board at each corner and the 
sheets composing it are torn off, one by one, as fast as they are used. 




Fig. 1. Fig. 2. 

The pads are sold separately from the boards and can be renewed as often 
as circumstances require They are made of a special light-tinted paper, 
with a good pencil surface, which has a reasonable good "tooth," and will 
take ink and bear the use of the rubber fairly well. The T-square is a 
substantial instrument, having a blade fourteen inches long. The head is 
adapted for use with the pad, as well as the single sheet, being unusually 
thick, so as to allow it to have a hold on the board when the pad is of full 
thickness. The two triangles, commonly called the 45° and 60° triangles, 
include all the standard angles, 90°, 45°, 60° and 30°, ordinarily needed by 
draftsman, and every child in the primary school should be intimately ac- 
quainted with them. The No. 1 kit is particularly designed for pupils be- 
low the high school grade. The No. 2 kit is nearly double the size of No. 
1 , and is sold without pads, being intended for professional draftsmen and 
advanced pupils. 

As a convenience in keeping the several pieces of the set together the 
back of the board is provided with grooved cleats and the cross cleats at 
the two ends of the board are slotted to receive the tongue of the T-square, 
so that when all the pieces are in place they are securely locked together, 
as shown in Fig. 2. This device makes it impossible for any of the parts 
to be lost or broken while the board is not in use^, provided they are proper- 
ly packed in their places. 

The Wooden Compasses. 

The work of constructing a circle on the blackboard, if of any value, 
must be done mechanically, hence the need of blackboard compasses in 
the ungraded school-room, as well as in the higher grades. Consequent- 
ly every school-room should have a good pair of wooden compasses, 
with patent adjustable crayon-holders so constructed that either leg will 
hold a crayon or a point. These points are reversible, one end being tip- 
ped with rubber and the other with a sharp piece of metal, this arrange- 
ment giving a choice of ends to be used so that no injury shall be done to 
the blackboard. 



64 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



The "Matchless" Pencil Compasses. 
The need of compasses that are compact, durable and inexpensive, so 
that they can be put in the hands of each pupil in the intermediate grades 
of school, is apparent to every teacher of mechanical 
drawing. Good school-compasses must embody in a 
cheap form the general features of the professional 
draftsman's instrument. The correct method of hand- 
ling this tool with the thumb and fingers in strik- 
ing a circle, shown in Fig. 1, cannot be acquired 
with the awkward, makeshift attachments to 
pencils which are put on the market in the name 
of economy, but which must be classed educa- 
tionally as abominations. The joint in a drafts- 
man's instrument shoud be adjusted to an easy 
friction, sufficient to hold the points in position 
without other attachments ; and this same ele- 
ment should be a part of the school-boy's com- 
passes, so that he may acquire the necessary 
delicacy of touch which will be invaluable to him 
later on in his work. 

The claim is made for the "Matchless" Com- 
passes that it is the cheapest and best instrument 
in the market, and combines more good points 
Fig. I. than any other. It is made of the best nickel, pm. 2. 

is provided with a rubber in the head, has an adjustable pencil attachment, 
and is also a perfect pocket instrument, taking up no more room when 
closed than a moderately long pencil. Fig. 1 gives a view of the instru- 
ment in use and Fig. 2 shows it folded together, with the point protected. 
The Beam Compasses. 





This instrument is devised to meet the demand for durable compasses 
at a low price. It is in some respects superior to the other forms and is 
given a place here in the hope that something more convenient than a bit 
of string for drawing a true circle may be provided for every school-room 
in the land. The length of the circle's diameter is regulated by moving 
the crayon-holder up or down the side. 

A Graduated Yard-stick. 

A good hard- wood yard-stick, graduated down to inches and eighths on 
one side, affords a light, convenient ruler and accurate measure at small 
cost. This article will be of service not only in drawing but also in num- 
ber work, where frequent measurements are required. 




A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 65 

The Springfield Pantograph. 

The present educational methods create a general demand for various 
conveniences for copying engravings and drawings when the subject to be 
copied must be enlarged or reduced. For blackboard work many small 
engravings from books of geography, botany, geology and other branches 
of natural history can be used to advantage, provided they can be accu- 
rately and conveniently transferred to the board. 

For enlarging and reducing all kinds of 
diagrams and engravings, no appliance is 
as simple and as accurate as the panto- 
graph, illustrated by the accompanying 
cut, which represents this instrument in 
use for enlarging a map of South America. 
Teachers who wish to place on the 
blackboard an enlarged map or other dia- 
gram selected from some book, magazine 
or newspaper can first outline it in the size 
desired on a piece of manilla paper. Then 
by putting the paper over a piece of thick 
cloth, enough holes can be readily pricked 
in it with a perforating needle to give the 
necessary guide-points for transferring the design to the blackboard, 
the paper being by this process transformed into a blackboard stencil, 
equal to any of the most- approved make. 

In case the teacher wishes to enlarge a picture from a book which can 
not be laid flat on a table or board, she can first "trace" it by holding a 
piece of tracing paper over it, and then carefully outlining it on the paper 
with a pencil sharpened to a good point and not too hard. This tracing 
can then be fastened to the table or drawing-board and easily enlarged 
by the pantograph. 

The Pantograph is an old and well-known instrument, but the general 
introduction of graphic methods in modern instruction has renewed the 
demand for its manufacture in a practical form and at a moderate price. 
The Springfield Pantograph is not a roughly-constructed toy, such as 
have hitherto been in the market, but is an accurate instrument, in the 
mechanical construction of which no care has been spared to make it ser- 
viceable. The holes in the bars are correctly spaced, drilled to fit the 
thumb-screw pivots and numbered to indicate the proper adjustment for 
any required size to which the design is to be enlarged or reduced. 

As regards certain details of construction and for conveience of manip- 
ulation the Springfield Pantograph is superior to anything of the kind 
which has ever been offered the public, even at a much greater cost. 

Each instrument is accompanied by carefully-prepared directions for 
use. 



66 HELPS FOB UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

CHAPTEK XII. 
NUMBER WORK. 

Any school exercise pertaining to the science of number, in its ramifi- 
cations, if the reader will allow the term, is classed under number work. 
The teaching of little children how to tell the time of day from a paste- 
board clock dial can conveniently and, as we believe, logically be regard- 
ed as a series of number lessons, although quite different from any of the 
common applications of the multiplication table. 

The exchange of toy money and the playing of games of mimic mer- 
, chandise by the pupils unquestionably come under the same head. Con- 
sequently it will be seen that this department includes everything from the 
handling of sticks, beads, pegs, etc., up to illustrating the principles of 
cube root and the manual demonstration of surfaces, weights, measures 
and solids. 

The best material employed in teaching the child to make quickly many 
of the simpler combinations which ilkistrate the four fundamental rules of 
arithmetic also helps to teach form and color. Because a knowledge of 
form and color greatly assists in the expression of ideas the teaching of 
these qualities is made an important part of language work. In fact 
language work, form stud}', the teaching of color and number work can be 
brought together constantl}' to their mutual advantage, and it will be no- 
ticed in the descriptions of aids to number work which follow that the at- 
tempt is made to impart ideas of form and color through many of them, 
as well as ideas of number. On the other hand it is equally evident that 
much of the material which we have considered in the previous chapters 
is fully as well adapted to illustrate the fundamental principles of number 
as to aid in form study or serve as busy work. Take the inch-cubes, for 
instance, or Mrs. Kallmann's beads. The latter may be used for a great 
variety of operations within the limits of one and ten and one and twenty ; 
in counting by ones, twos, threes, fours and fives, etc., in analysis and 
synthesis of the numbers two and ten ; in the making of addition, sub- 
traction, multiplication and division tables. Through this occupation, 
moreover, the child can readily perceive the harmonies and contrasts of 
the colors as they are explained by the teacher. These exercises may be 
dictated or indicated on the blackboard, read or reduced to slate-work 
from the strings. Work of this character can be done profitably during 
the first average school-year and need not be given up altogether during 
the second year. Aside from the counting, just alluded to, it is better 
not to carry the exercises beyond ten with the little children. 




A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 67 

Kendall's Chromatic Numeral Frame. 

After using the beads for a time the teacher finds that more flexible 
material is needed for calling up more promptly and in quicker succession 
images of those number perceptions in the mind of the pupil which the 
handling of the beads has helped to form, according to Prof. Hailmann. 
In other words, the pupils must be led "from the mere desire for play- 
ing with numbers of pretty things to a real interest in number as such." 

For this purpose a wise teacher will 
choose the balls. "They represent the 
most mobile of the three bead forms and 
are least weighted with form features." 
The Abacus, or Numeral Frame has long 
been one of the most generally used de- 
vices for teaching children to count and 
also apply the principles of addition, sub- 
traction, multiplication and division. The 
balls in the Kendall numeral frame, shown 
in the accompanying cut, are nicely turned 
from hard wood and are in the six stand- 
ard colors, being polished so as to produce a beautiful effect. 

The idea of using the six colors in the numeral frame was the happy 
thought of Mr. George M. Kendall of New York City, and its develop- 
ment in the present form renders the article bearing his name unquestion- 
ably the best in the market. 

Large Pegs For Counters. 

Attention is called in this connection to what is said in Chapter IV re- 
garding papers and straws for stringing and pegs and peg-boards. Aside 
from the pegs there described many wide-awake teachers who are cons- 
tantly on the alert for new objects to help them in number work are using 
a line of large wooden pegs an inch and a quarter long, and an eighth of 
an inch square, made to represent a mammoth shoe peg and sold in the 
six colors at a price which makes them the cheapest counters that can be 
bought. 

Primary Counting Blocks. 

While blocks for counting, of various sizes and forms, bearing no rela- 
tion to each other, have been long in use, the design of this set is not 
only to serve as counters for the child, but also to teach form, size, com- 
parison of volume, composition and division or analysis. 

A child can examine, handle and count blocks of exact dimensions just 
as readily as he can those of indefinite size. He can comprehend an inch, 
a foot, a yard, and become familiar with those terms and what they mean 
as well as he can comprehend a block of meaningless dimensions. An 
appreciation of this truth has led to the preparation Of a set of 242 blocks 
of exact dimensions, as indicated by the following list : — 



68 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

48 pieces of No. 1, which is a quarter brick, J in. x J in. x 1 inch. 

48 pieces of No. 2, which is a half brick, ^ in. x 1 in. x 1 inch. 

48 pieces of No. 3, which is a half brick, ^ in. x J in. x 2 inches. 

48 pieces of No. 4, which is a whole brick, ^ in. x 1 in. x 2 inches. 

48 pieces of No. 5, which is a 1 inch cube. 

2 pieces of No. 6, which is a 2 inch cube. 



1^^^^ 




12 3 4 5 6 

The whole set, with directions, is nicely put up in a strong, finely-pol- 
ished wooden box, with partitions, and the following suggestions for us- 
ing the blocks will be found of service : — 

With very young children. — For the first few days the teacher should 
have the pupils handle the blocks merely as counters. Let them count 
ten of No. 1 and then ten of No. 2. Put each size in a separate group. 
Then ask the children, How many groups have you? How many blocks 
in a group ? How many blocks in all ? Now make another group of No. 
3 blocks. How many groups have you now ? How many kinds of blocks ? 
How many blocks in all? Thus proceed until 200 blocks are used, repeat- 
ing questions similar to the above with each additional group. Now, How 
many No. 1 blocks have you left? How many No. 2 ? No. 3 ? No. 4 ? No. 
5? How many blocks in all? In this way use all the blocks in the set 
as counters. 

To teach size and measure. — Show the children that No. 1 blocks are 
just one inch long. Lay 12 of them end to end and thus make a foot ; 
36 of them and make a yard. Ask them what folks buy by the yard. 
Ask them if tea, coffee, sugar, candy and molasses are sold by the yard. 
Tell them to find out all the things that are sold by the yard and see which 
child can tell you the most things the next day ; then write on the black- 
board the list which each pupil brings in, and talk about the things thus 
named. In this way you will get many subjects for little stories. Next 
place the No. 3 blocks end to end and see how many will make a foot, a 
yard. Then put them side by side and ask the same questions. Do the 
same with Nos. 2, 4 and 5. 

To compare volume. — Two of No. 1, placed side by side, equal No. 2 ; 
placed end to end equal No. 3, hence there is the same volume in No. 2, 
as in No. 3. Place two of No. 2, side by side, and you have No. 4. 
Place No. 2 on top of No. 2, and you have No. 5, hence No. 4 has the 
same volume as No. 5. 

To teach composition. — Put four No. I's together and make cube No. 5. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL, 69 

Put 8 No. 5's together and make cube No. 6. See how many of No. 4 it 
will take to make No. 6. Call the attention of the children to the fact 
that since No. 4 and No. 5 have the same volume it will, of course, take 
8 ; thus you begin to develop the reasoning faculties, Make a No. 6 cube 
of No. 3's, also of No. 2's and No. I's, and inquire how many of each it 
requires. 

To teach division. — Having made as many No. 6 cubes as the different 
sizes of blocks will allow — using only one size in any one cube — proceed 
to divide these composition cubes by 2, by 4, by 8, by 16, by 32, and then 
you are prepared for a lesson in fractions. Form a No. 5 cube with two 
No. 2 blocks and give a lesson on one-half, then proceed with a cube No. 
6 formed of No. 5's and give another lesson on one-half, then on one- 
fourth and then on one-eighth, and so on with the different composition 
cubes almost indefinitely. 

A few questions like the following will suggest others and start a train 
of thought in the mind of a little five-years old that will produce surpris- 
ing results : How many blocks 1 inch square are required to make a block 
2 inches square? 3 inches square? 4 inches square? How many 1-inch 
cubes are required to make a 2-inch cube ? a 3-inch cube ? How many 6- 
inch sticks of timber can be made from a 12-inch stick? How many 4- 
inch? How many 3 -inch? How many 2-inch? How many 1-inch? These 
test questions, with many others of similar nature, can be easily under- 
stood after the little people fully comprehend the use of the blocks. 

How To Teach Number-writing With The Sticks. 

The writing of numbers by the children is recommended during their 
first year's course, just as the writing of words and sentences is considered 
desirable early in their language work. And the use of sticks, already 
explained as a part of form study, will be found valuable in teaching nu- 
merical proportions. 

While the child is learning to count he should be impressed with the 
fact that however large a number he is able to master, that number is 
made up of units or ones, .that it is simply an aggregation or accumulation 
of the ones with which he began at the outset. To illustrate the fact let 
him take one of the 5-inch sticks while you write the word one, and then 
the figure 1 on the blackboard. The 5-inch stick is suggested because it 
is less liable to be lost than the shorter ones, and is more easily held in 
place in large bundles of sticks. Then let him take another stick, and, 
while he holds both you can write the word two and the figure 2 as soon 
as he tells you how many he holds. Proceed in this way until he has 10 
sticks in his hand, then put an elastic round these sticks and impress on 
him the fact that he now has one ten. He will readily see that he has one 
bundle, and that bundle is ten sticks ; hence he has one ten or 10. 

This 07ie bundle needs more room than did the one stick, and to represent 
it you write the figure 1 on the blackboard with a at, the right. It is one 



70 HELPS FOB UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

htindle and nothing more. Now let him lay one stick at the right side of 
that bundle and he has 1 bundle and 1 stick or 11, when written on the 
board. Let him makeup two bundles and then three and four, to 10 bun- 
dles. Now he has no room for representing those and must find another 
place. Put two elastics round the ten bundles, thus holding them firmly 
in one package. His bundles now have disappeared, and you put a in the 
place heretofore representing them ; his single sticks had disappeared be- 
fore and a stood in their place. The absence of his sticks and his 6?m- 
dles is represented by 00, standing side by side. Intuition by this time 
teaches him to represent his package by a figure 1 at their left. Let him 
now make up \0 packages, placing the proper figure in the place where 
stood the representative of one package as he completed each of his ten, 
and he will discover the law of writing all numbers, however large. 

These 10 packages bound in one will give him the ability to comprehend 
a thousand as well as to write a thousand. Having counted them he finds 
just what a multitude 1000 is. This plan properly carried out robs the 
science of numbers of that terrible mystery and uncertainty which clings 
for years to the mind that enters the study without a proper comprehen- 
sion of the simple number one. With a little practice of the kind indica- 
ted the pupil will learn to represent 564, for instance, by five bunches of 
100, six of 10 and four single sticks. Next let him place sticks represent- 
ing the first number under it and add the ones, tens and hundreds, puttinf 
down the several sums where they belong, thereby laying the foundation 
for addition and subtraction of written numbers. 

Parish's Primary Number Tablets. 



o 


o 


o 


() 


• 


() 


o 


• 


o 



o o 



o • 
o • 



O O O 

o o oo 



o o 
o • 



o o o 
o • o 



These tablets are made of wood three-eighths of an inch thick, for du- 
rability, in two sizes, one being four inches by two and the other five 
inches by two and a half. They are also printed on substantial card- 
board. The smaller set is intended as a part of number work in the first 
half-year of school life and the box contains ten tablets. The large set 
consists of twelve tablets and is for use during the second half-year. 
Different combinations of blue and red dots appear on the tablets, a few 
■of which are shown in the diagram. 

The tablets are for review purposes and to establish a clear idea of 
numbers and their relations in the minds of children in the lowest grades. 
Before using them the pupils are supposed to have discovered the number 
facts indicated on them, and the exercises should aim at training the per- 
ceptive faculties to be quick, accurate and comprehensive. The use of 
the tablets is a gain over the ordinary method of review by oral questions, 
because the number on the tablet appeals to the sight instead of hearing 
and leaves a more vivid impression on the mind, which is intensified by 
frequent repetitions. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL, 



71 



By this system of teaching pupils learn the analysis into equal parts of 
all numbers as high as twelve, and into any two unequal parts of all num- 
bers as high as six, during the first half-year. The work is continued 
through the second half-year on the same principle, as far as twenty-seven, 
the limit of the fifth kindergarten gift. In this way the two unequal parts 
of all numbers as far as ten are learned, by the blocks, inch-cubes and 
other objects, and the whole subject is reviewed and fastened in the mind 
by the tablets. 

Du Shane's Figure Cards, 




Tlie obverse and reverse sides of one card. 

Any school-room divice which helps secure rapid and correct results in 
mental number work is welcomed both by teachers and the public. Thou- 
sands of people who were not properly drilled in this respect during child- 
hood add with difficulty all their lives, and difficult adding is very liable 
to be incorrect. This remark is measurably true of subtraction, multipli- 
cation and division. To avoid such troubles it is necessary to teach child- 
ren to read simple combinations at sight. Du Shane's Figure Cards, for 
primary school practice, have been prepared 'by an experienced teacher 
and published at the solicitation of other educators who have seen their 
value in practical use. 

The set comprises thirty cards, about two and a half by three and a half 
inches, twenty-seven of which are printed on each side, with a different 
combination of digits as shown above, somewhat reduced in size. The 
other three cards contain common arithmetical signs. 

The use of the set is very simple. The teacher takes a card at random, 
and, quickly holding it before the class, asks for names of figures, their 
sum, difference, product or quotient, meanwhile working the same prob- 



72 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

lems herself by means of the small index figures in the right-hand cor- 
ner, on the side next to her, which are duplicates of the large figures on 
the opposite side of the card. The exercise may be very entertaining and 
instructive to little ones, if carried on rapidly and with spirit. 
The Number Builder. 

The success attending the use of The Word Builder in language work 
suggested The Number Builder, which is a box containing a liberal supply 
of the first ten numerals, the cipher and the signs of Addition, Subtrac- 
tion, Multiplication, Division and Equality, printed on substantial and 
good-sized tablets. It is intended for use as seat work by the pupils after 
they are thoroughly versed in the operations already mentioned. They can 
form tables with the contents of the box and copy them on paper or on 
their slates. Let the children understand that the tablets are given them 
for work and not play and that everything must be done accurately. If the 
teacher shows the right spirit and is fully in sympathy with this work the 
combinations which are possible and most desirable with such an outfit 
will readily suggest themselves to her, and after the children have worked 
by dictation for a time they can be trusted to make combinations of their 
own. 

Reed's Card-board Objects For Teaching Number. 

Many teachers claim that there can be but one logical method in teach- 
ing the elements of numbers, by whatever name it is known. This meth- 
od consists in presenting to the learner groups of objects by means of 
which he may abstract the general notion which we call number. 

In teaching elementary number a variety of objects is indispensable, 
since a general notion of any kind can only be obtained by observing 
•many particulars. Objects of every kind convenient for school use may 
be employed, but it is obvious that the more interest excited in a subject 
by the device chosen, the less number of repetitions are necessary to fix 
the facts presented. Objects therefore which appeal most strongly to 
the learner are of the most value. 

Card-board objects excite a lively interest in the subject, since they 
come nearer to the real things than any other class of objects. For 
whatever purpose the child needs objects in studying number, whether 
to determine what the number is, or to suggest and illustrate a number 
problem, these card-board, designs hold the thought to the work more 
intensely than other objects are able to do. They also give opportunity 
for a variety of number perceptions, since they may include horses, mice, 
chickens, pigs, fans, tops, brooms, dust-pans, parasols, caps, lamps or 
almost anything familiar to the children. 

A teacher needs a set for each pupil in the class, every set consisting 
of ten objects of a kind. It is convenient to have each set in an en- 
velope or box by itself to aid in quick distribution. A child having re- 
ceived his envelope of objects, takes from it the number he is studying, 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 



73 



and then proceeds to group it in a way to illustrate the number pi'ob- 
lem under consideration. If, for instance, he wishes to demonstrate that 
four and two are six, he arranges his horses or caps so as to correspond 
to this grouping, and then conforms his number problems to the picture 
before him. 




25 'so 30 

As shown in the illustration, this assortment of card-board objects, 
devised by Miss E. M. Read, principal of the Springfield (Mass) Train- 
ing School For Teachers, comprises thirty different sheets, each of which 
contains ten objects of the same kind. These sheets are sold by the 
dozen, and should always be ordered by the numbers given in the above 
cut. If, for example, a sheet of ten lamps is wanted, the number 14 must 
be given in the order. Considering the difQculty which many progressive 
primary teachers have experienced in securing enough objects of the right 
kind for their number teaching, it is believed that this collection will meet 
with a prompt and wide-spread appreciation from the profession. 



74 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



CHAPTEK XIII. 
TIME AND MONEY. 



This chapter, which is a continuation of number work, relates to the 
methods of teaching children how to tell the time of day and the use of 
money. The teacher of any experience in an ungraded school fully reali- 
zes that during the first two years of school life many things are more im- 
portant for the children than reading and spelling. A little experiment- 
ing will convince her that among the practical things which seem so sim- 
ple nothing is really more difficult for a child than reading the clock dial 
— telling the time of day. The child cannot be allowed to touch the clock, 
neither can the teacher or parent move the hands for his benefit, hence the 
difficulty. 

To overcome this stumbling-block it is possible to place in the hands of 
both teacher and pupils a set of clock dials with movable hands, at mod- 
erate cost, for use during a series of object lessons. 
The Educational Clock Dials. 
These dials are made in two sizes, one for the teacher and the other for 
the children. The dial intended for the teacher consists of a clock face, 

mounted on a suitable support, with reg- 
ular clock hands, which can be moved 
independently of each other. The face 
or circle is about 12 inches in diameter 
and the mount 14 inches square, so that 
the dial can be distinctly seen from any 
part of a large school-room, either in the 
hands of the teacher or as it hangs on 
the wall. 

On the back of these dials is printed a 
series of illustrations and descriptions of 
the prominent methods of marking time 
used in different ages. The earliest division of time was made by simple 
observations of the sun, as "Sun Rise," "Noon" and "Sun Set," Noon 
being later determined by a "Noon Mark," which was the original of the 
Dial. The Graduated Candle, Hour Glass and Water Clock were in turn 
supplemented by "Grandfather's Clock" and the celebrated American 
watches, until now a wide section of the country can be provided by elec- 
tricity with absolutely correct time from an astronomical observatory. 
The illustrations of these different appliances on the back of the large 
dials will serve as a text for various instructive talks by the teacher. 




A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 75 

The child's clock dial has a face four and a half inches in diameter, on 
thick card-board, with movable steel hands, being in every respect 
as complete for the purpose for which it is intended as the large dial. 
The use of these dials makes the teaching of time very simple. The little 
child can move the hands of his dial at will and thus "learn by doing." 
He is always more interested in doing a thing than in merely watching 
somebody else do it, and he receives instruction in direct proportion to his 
interest in the matter under consideration. Consequently it is evident 
that much more may be accomplished by putting a small dial in the hands 
of each pupil in the class or school, so that all may solve the simple prob- 
lems proposed silently and in concert, than to depend on the single dial 
which the teacher uses. 

A Lesson On Time. 

In order to use these dials the teacher must secure for the school-room 
a stricking clock, between which and the dials it will be necessary for the 
children to "compare notes." After they have been taught to name the 
face and hands of the clock and drilled in the first twelve Roman letters, 
either from the clock or dial, we should suppose the first time-lesson to be- 
gin somewhat in this way : — 

Teacher. — (Holding up a dial) "What is this like? 

Children. — It is like the face of a clock. 

Teacher. — It is a clock dial, but we can play it is a real clock, (pointing 
to the hands.) What are these ? 

Children. — They are hands. 

Teacher. — Are the hands alike ? 

Children. — One is long, the other is short. 

Teacher. — What shall we call them ? 

Children. — Long hand and short hand. 

Teacher. — (Give each child a dial) Hold the dial so that XII is at the 
top. Make the short hand point to VI and the long hand to XII. When 
the hands are like this, it is six o'clock. Turn the short hand to IX. 
What time is it now ? 

Children. — Now it is nine o'clock. 

Remind the children that this is the time when school begins. Then let 
them find the different hours for closing school, recess, breakfast, dinner, 
supper, getting up, going to bed, going off on the train or the street car, 
going to church, etc. The lessons should be continued by showing the 
movement of the hands from hour to hour. 

Teacher. — Notice the clock. Can you see whether both hands move 
alike ? 

Children. — The long hand moves faster than the short hand. 

Teacher. — Yes, much faster. It goes around the circle while the short 
hand goes from I to II, and so on. 

Tell the children that it takes an hour, or 60 minutes, for the long hand 



76 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

to go round the circle and for the short hand to go from I to II, etc. 
Give them practice in moving both hands on the dials, first moving the 
long hand a quarter of an hour and then the short hand a distance esti- 
mated by them to be one-fourth of that between two of the twelve divis- 
ions on the dial. Then move the long pointer through the second quar- 
ter and the short pointer the same distance as before, so continuing to do 
until both have been moved over the same distances that the pointers of a 
real clock would have jjassed during an hour. 

Before going farther much practice should be given in telling the half 
and quarter hours. As an aid in this work some teachers favor dividing 
the dial into halves and quarters, which can be readily done by tying 
strings tightly across the face, vertically and horizontally. Sometimes it 
is a good plan to have a child detailed to remind the school when the quar- 
ter hours come round, or to have the different lessons to begin and end on 
the halt and quarter hours. 

As soon as the children can tell time by the clock and readily set their 
dials to the teacher's dictation see that they can count by fives from five to 
thirty and teach the minutes by fives, 5, 10, 15 etc., past the hour, and 
then count by fives toward the next hour. By this time it is proper to let 
the hands be called liour and minute hands. In all these exercises the 
teacher should be careful not to hurry over ground which requires weeks 
and months of patient drill. 

Of course much more can be taught the children in regard to time than 
is here indicated — the divisions of days, weeks, months and years and the 
reasons for these divisions — but such teaching vrould necessarily form 
another series of lessons, leading into geography and astronomy, and 
would have to be treated in a different way, although pains should always 
be taken to show the underlying connection between the second series and 
the first. Some teachers also find the clock dials useful in illustrating the 
principles of fractions. 

The Educational Tot Monet. 

It is a trite saying that "Time is Money," but the study of both can be 
closely connected with advantage in the ungraded school. 

All children who have any idea whatever of numbers like to count mon- 
ey, and a newsboy or gingerbread peddler vrho is practiced in the art, al- 
though he be only "knee high," often shows himself more reliable at mak- 
ing change than the average college graduate. Moreover, when such curb- 
stone merchants turn their attention to arithmetic in school they are found 
to have already mastered its fundamental processes. 

Learned treatises on political economy tell us that money is "a measure 
of value and a medium of exchange," and this is precisely what the child 
needs in his primary calculations, something to measure the value of the 
things with which his mind is dealing and also something to educate the 
propensity which is constantly leading him to "trade" with his fellows, so 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 



77 



that it shall become more than a mere pastime, a part of his equipment 
for life. These ideas are by no means wholly theoretical, because not a 
few teachers testify that whenever our Educational Toy Money is used in 
primary schools the pupils acquire a facility of correctness in adding, sub- 
tracting and multiplying which commends it as the best appliance yet 
found for acquiring an early knowledge of the fundamental processes of 
arithmetic. 

This toy money is made of heavy card-board and represents the differ- 
ent coins in current use, from the $20. gold piece down to the cent, the 




facsimile being in each case as perfect as in this illustration. The collec- 
tion includes double eagles, eagles, half-eagles, quarter-eagles, $3.00 
pieces, dollars, half-dollars, quarters, dimes, half-dimes, two-cent and 
cent pieces, in such proportion as to make about $100 in United States 
money, placed in a box containing eight movable trays for the different 
denominations. 

An Outfit For " Buying and Selling." 

Few mortals enjoy the posession of money without the means of spend- 
ing it. The most diverting and often the most instructive "busy work" 
for little people, both at home and in school, is that which has about it a 
strong flavor of real life, which is much like what "grown up" folks do as 
it can possibly be. Consequently the outfit for "Buying and Selling," 
published in connection with the toy money, is likely to prove a delightful 
boon to those juveniles who want to keep store, and where can we find 
children who never experience violent attacks of that fever? 

Buying and Selling is in every sense an educational game. The box 
contains toy money representing about $100 and thirty-six pictures of 
common-place commodities, such as a dozen eggs, a cord of wood, pound 
of coffee, ton of coal, etc., which are intended to be bought and sold as 
substitutes for the articles which they represent. The box also includes 
slips of manilla paper for making paper bags to hold bran or sawdust and 
be duly labeled as representing a variety of goods, unless the youthful 
merchants are allowed to fill them with the "real" things. Four sheets of 



78 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

printed labels are provided, to be cut up so that the name of each article 
shall be on a separate slip, and the collection is rounded out by adding a 
form on which to make the paper bags and careful directions as to how it 
should be done, together with a printed list of the prices which it is proper 
to put on the goods, in case the local price of any article is not known. 

Business In The School-room 

A bright teacher will not need to be told how to use this game to advan- 
tage in the school-room, but will hit on the ways that suit her best. In 
writing to the School Journal on this subject such a teacher says : — 

"The school was divided into "producers" of various kinds : Farmers, 
manufacturers, etc. Each chose his occupation and constructed a sign 
8x4 inches, with his name and occupation neatly lettered on it ; these 
signs were hung on a line in the rear of the room : — 



PETER JONES. 
Hay for Sale. 



JOHN SMITH. 

Potatoes for Sale. 



WM. JOHNSON. 
Cotton Cloth. 



Then one pupil was appointed as a retail merchant and one as a whole- 
sale merchant. The latter was the capitalist, and to him I gave the monej' 
on his depositing his note with me. 

Now the "producers" sold hay, oats, corn, cloth, etc., to the "whole- 
saler" and got money and put in their boxes. Then the "retailer" went 
to the "wholesaler" and bought goods and arranged them in his store, 
which was a neat set of pigeon-holes properly labeled ; over it was his name. 
This was also the plan of the "wholesaler." 

Now the "producers" went to the retailer and bought things for "con- 
sumption ;" they paid money for them. 

A certain hour was fixed each day for trading, laying in supplies, etc., 
a certain time for consumption, etc. Each "producer" was obliged to 
make out a bill to the "wholesaler ;" the "wholesaler" to the "retailer," 
and he to the "consumer." All of these were submitted to one pupil who 
was called the "accountant." If any mistake was detected the maker of it 
was fined in real money (one cent usually) and this went into a "fund" that 
was expended, when it reached 25 cents, in oranges, apples and candy for 
the benefit of all the class. This was a time of much fun. 

The eighth grade (pupils eight years old) had very simple exercises, no 
fractions. The ninth grade had some that were harder, and so on. The 
"retailer" regulated the difficulties ; he would sell out, for example, 540 lbs. 
of hay at $15 per ton, or 4f lbs. of codfish at 5 cents a lb. etc., to the ad- 
vanced classes. 

Every pupil was required to "balance his cash" every night. About 
forty articles were dealt in : Boots, shoes, clothing, hams, potatoes, sugar, 
etc. The "wholesaler" and "retailer" kept books ; the others paid cash, 
had bills made and receipts given. All papers were filed away in envel- 
opes. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 79 

It need not be said that the deepest interest prevailed ; and much com- 
petition was demanded and obtained. 

1 . Let the teacher select a good pupil to be retail merchant. 

2. Another good one to be ivJiolesale merchant. If possible have a 
desk for each in opposite corners of the room. 

3. Give $1,000 to the wholesale merchant — he gives his note. 

4. Now let the "producers," the other pupils, come up and sell to the 
wholesaler. He takes in their envelopes with hay, cloth, etc., and coimts 
them. They make out bills ; he pays, and they give receipts. 

5. Let the retailer go and lay in his supplies. 

6. Now let these producers (as heads of families) go and buy — some 
one thing, some another, and take the goods along, paying cash. Bills 
will be made out, etc. For small boys the price of goods must not be in 
fractions ; let the teacher guide this with care. Let each boy keep every 
paper so as to account for all his money. For example, a boy as producer 
gets $10. What has become of it? He must show a voucher for the ex- 
penditure." 

Any scheme like this can easily be carried into the higher grades by or- 
ganizing banks, railroad, steam-boat, express and telegraph companies, 
etc. In such cases the transactions will be almost wholly carried on by 
accounts and checks on banks, deposits being made in checks and drafts, 
so that only a small amount of money is required. Additional enthusiasum 
can be secured by forming partnership firms, each containing two or more 
pupils, for conducting different lines of business. By taking some pains 
almost every teacher can get together a collection of blank checks, drafts, 
notes, bill-heads, bills of lading, freight and express receipts, telegraph 
blanks, etc., the pupils in many places being able to help increase the 
list. A great deal can be learned in properly filling out these blanks, wri- 
ting condensed telegraphic dispatches at the rate of ten words for 25 cents, 
and undertaking many other transactions of a similar nature. 

Referring once more to the "Buying and Selling" outfit it will be seen 
that the folding and pasting of the paper to make the bags, under the 
teacher's supervision, and the careful filling and labeling them is an exer- 
cise in primary manual training which is by no means to be despised. 
While the child is handling any commodity or its representative let him 
learn where it comes from, that cork, for instance, is brought from Spain 
and rubber secured in Brazil, with other interesting facts. 

A reference to the chapter on Weights and Measures may suggest to the 
teacher additional methods which will be valuable. 

How To Teach Interest. 

Before leaving the subject of toy money it may be helpful to append a 
lesson regarding interest by W. M. Griffin of the Cook County Normal 
School, published in the Teachers' World, which runs in this wise : — 

"Nothing was said to the pupils about interest. They were simply told 



80 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



to bring theii' toy money to school the next clay, when I began the 
lesson as follows : I lent a man $1 for one year and he agrees to pay me 
6 cents for the use of it. Take from your money the amount he pays me 
for the use of the money. — Henry, how much have you taken? Henry 
answered, "six cents." How many agree? Right. Next, you may take 
the amount he owed me at the end of the year. Jennie, how much have 
you taken? "$1.06" said Jennie. How many agree? Right again. 
How much would he have paid me for the use of $2, $8, $10, $20, $100? 
The answers are drawn from their toy money each time. How long did 
the man have my money, John? "One year." How many months was 
that, William? "Twelvemonths." If he had taken one dollar for two 
months what part of twelve months would that have been, Frank? "2-12 
or 1-6 of twelve months." What did he pay me for the use of it for 
twelve months, Minnie ? "Six cents." Then what would he have paid 
had he kept it but two months, Mary? "1-6 of 6 cents, or 1 cent." 
Now draw from your money what he should pay for $2 for two months. 
They all drew 2 cents. 

Next the pupils were told to draw the answer to the amount named and to 
arrange the amounts drawn in a line on the desks, the time being two 
months, as follows : — 

Amount Named. Amount Drawn. 



$1.00 

$2.00 

$8.00 

$10.00 

$80.00 

$480.00 



$0.01 
$0.02 
$0.08 
$0.10 
$0.80 
$4.80 



The answers were then read by different members of the class ; they re- 
ferring to the different sums they had drawn in order. Who can tell what 
you have discerned? John answered, "I take as many cents each time as 
you name dollars." Good ! How many noticed that? Hands all up but 
two. We go over the work again and show no signs of impatience, and 
now all see the truth. 

Again, what will I receive for $8 for two months, Nellie? "8 cents." 
Then how much will I receive for one month. Who can tell ? All hands 
raised. Frank may tell. "1-2 of 8 cents, or 4 cents." You may again 
draw answers as I name the amount lent, remembering that the time is 
one month. 



unt Named. 


Amount Drawn 


$2.00 


$0.01 


$8.00 


$0.04 


$10.00 


$0.05 


$20.00 


$0.10 


$620.00 


$3.10 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 



81 



Next, you may draw two answers. (1). What I get for one month. 
(2) . What I get for the number of months I shall name at differen times. 
Ready ? — 



Amount Named. 



$40 



Amount Drawn 

$0.04 
$0.10 
$0.30 
$0.20 
$4.20 
$2 40 



Time 
in months. 

5 

8 

2 
10 
10 

5 



2d Ans. 

$0.20 
$0.80 
$0.60 
$2.00 
$42.00 
$12.00 



The answers were read by the different pupils, when the following ques- 
tions were asked : What do we call money paid for the use of a house ? 
Who can tell? John tell. John said, "the money paid for the use of a 
house is called rent." Right. What do we call the money paid to clerks ? 
The answer, salary, was given. What do we call money paid for the use 
of money ? Only five of you know. Very well, then, I shall wait and 
ask you again to-morrow. The next day nearly all were ready to tell me, 
"The money paid for the use of money is called interest." 
A Few Hints About Percentage. 

Kittie Kearney, writing from Wisconsin to Popular Educator, says that 
in teaching percentage she first impresses on the children the fact that it 
means part. The way for this portion of the work has been carefully pre- 
pared, by constant and thorough drill in the relation of numbers ; i. e., 
what part one is of another. "As soon as they understand the significance 
of percentage I proceed to tell them that per cent means by the 'hun- 
dred,' and that the whole of anything is represented by one hundred per 
cent. This latter fact they will generally know from the markings on the 
previous examination papers or slate work. Next present the dollar with 
its various parts, such as the half, quarter, etc., and by a little judicious 
questioning the relatitions of parts are easily developed. Perhaps the 
pupils knew all this before reaching percentage but had not been called 
on to think or tell about it. Now you will find they are ready and 
anxious to tell. 

Thus : Julia, what part of a dollar is fifty cents ? 

Julia. — One-half. 

TeacJier. — Then what per cent is it ? 

Julia. — It is one-half of one hundred per cent, or fifty per cent. 

Edward, what part of one dollar is twenty cents ? 

Edivard. — One-fifth. 

Teacher. — Then what per cent is it ? 

Edward. — It is one-fifth of one hundred per cent, or twenty per cent. 

After using the aliquot parts of a dollar, I take crayons or any objects 
that will readily admit of a division, and distribute a certain number of 
them, say ten, among certain pupils, requesting individuals to give others 
a required per cent of their amount. 



82 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



CHAPTER XIY. 

THE TEACHING OF FRACTIONS. 

The use of objects in teaching fractions has long been considered nec- 
essary by the best instructors, who have frequently resorted to apples, 
pears and other fruits for this purpose, because they are conveniently 
handled, and subdivided. But the difficulty of reconstructing the several 
wholes and keeping the parts in place is annoying, not to mention the 
consumption of time and fruit. Wooden models of the apple and pear 
have been made in sections, with provision for holding the parts in place, 
but these are expensive. Discs of wood and card have also been used by 
the teacher in explaining problems to the pupils. Within a few years, in 
accordance with the principle that only the work of any school-room which 
every member of the class does for himself can be regarded as the best, a 
set of fraction cards has been devised for use on each pupil's desk, with a 
large set for the teacher. 

The Colored Fraction Discs. 






These cards are discs of heavy card-board, four inches in diameter, cut 
in halves, thirds, fourths, sixths and eighths, with one whole disc, making 
twenty-four pieces, put up in a serviceable envelope, with instructions to 
teachers. Colors are introduced to give variety and to distinguish between 
the several pieces, the selection being such that all the elementary combi- 
nations of harmony and contrast can be fully illustrated. 

In some educational devices, language cards for instance, colors have 
been used to designate things different in character, red for verbs, yellow 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 83 

for nouns, etc. When this plan is followed, however, there is danger that 
the little child may possibly conceive the notion that the color employed 
has some special relation to the thing which it is used to represent ; in frac- 
tions, for example, that if a section indicating one-half is red the half of 
every object must necessary be that same color. This objectionable re- 
sult is here avoided by the arrangement of the colors. In the sixths, the 
complete disc consists of red, blue, green, yellow, orange and purple pieces, 
which may be arranged to show contrast and illustrate combinations of the 
primary colors, thus supplying a good set of color-cards without addition- 
al expense and rendering the fraction cards more attractive and effective. 
As with all aids furnished to each pupil, the work here must be by dicta- 
tion and not by imitation, consequently there is no necessity for discs in 
the hands of a teacher, if she can use the blackboard with facility. 

Some teachers prefer as an aid in beginning their lessons in fractions a 
set of six large uncut discs, seven and a half inches in diameter, put up in 
a substantial envelope, representing the six smaller discs when put to- 
gether, and used to explain which are halves, which are quarters, etc. 
One in one color represents the unit, another is divided into halves by two 
contrasting colors, and so on through the subdivisions illustrated by the 
cut discs. 

These larger uncut discs can be held up before the class without incon- 
venience or special appliances to distract the thoughts of the teacher, and 
the first idea of fractions may thus be taught. 

The unit is first shown and, if desirable, is called a pie or cake. Then 
the disc divided into halves is exhibited and the halves explained, and 
other denominations in succession. 

From these discs colored in sections, which are conveniently handled hj 
the teacher, the children obtain a knowledge of the relative sizes and 
forms of the different divisions before the cut-up discs are given to them. 

They are thus able to readily select a half, a quarter, or an eighth at 
sight, and therefore can begin simple operations with the small discs purely 
by dictation. 

Should any teacher prefer to use the large discs cut up it is a simple 
matter to cut them on the lines with heavy shears, and they may be shown 
to the class fairly well by spreading a black woolen shawl over an atlas 
steeply inclined toward the pupils. 

An Illustrative Lesson. 

Suggestions as to problems and methods of work are hardly necessary, 
as every teacher will have her individual preferences, and should have the 
ability to get best results from her own details in method, and yet the fol- 
lowing lesson may have some value as merely suggesting the wide field 
opened by the use of the individual discs in the hands of the pupils. 

The envelopes containing discs having been distributed, the teacher 
asks each pupil to hold up a whole circle. 



84 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

Teacher. — What have you now? 

Child. — I have a circle. 

Teacher. — Make a circle out of two parts on your desk — Compare these 
parts. 

Child. — They are equal or alike. 

Teacher. — (Showing a circle of paper cut into two unequal parts.) 
Compare these parts.* 

Child. — These are not alike. 

Teacher. — When we divide the circle into two parts, just alike, what do 
we call the parts? 

Child. — We call them halves. 

Teacher. — How many halves are there in a circle ? 

Child. — There are two-halves in a circle. 

Teacher. — Put the one-half and one-half together, how many halves 
have you? 

Child. — I have two-halves. 

Teacher. — How many circles have you ? 

Child. — I have one circle. 

Teacher. — What makes two halves ? 

Child. — One-half and one-half make two-halves. 

Teacher. — What makes one circle? 

Child. — One-half and one-half make one circle. 

Teacher. — Take one-half circle from two-halves, what have you left? 

Child. — I have one-half circle. 

Teacher. — One-have from two-halves leaves how many? 

Child. — One-half from two-halves leaves one-half. 

Teacher. — One-half from one-half leaves how many? 

Child. — One-half from one-half leaves nothing. 

Teacher. — One-half from one, leaves how many ? 

Child. — One-half from one, leaves one-half. 

Teacher. — How many are two one-halves? 

Child. — Two one-halves are two-halves, or one. 

Teacher. — How many one-halves in two-halves? 

Child. — There are two one-halves in two-halves. 

The tables on the following page are simply suggestive of the many 
combinations the children can make with easy fractional numbers. While 
doing this they are becoming familiar with the principles that govern all 
our work in fractions, the most important of which is that they look on 
the fractional unit as on any other unit, and on the names, fourths, fifths, 
sixths, etc., as equivalent to books, boxes, apples, etc. 

If these things are kept in mind the children will perform all the pro- 
cesses in fractions as readily as in whole numbers. 

*NoTE. — A piece of 4-inch circular folding paper will answer the purpose. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 



85 



TABLES. 



2 ~ 2 

1 _ 1 

2 3 

1 
2 



X 1 

1 X i 

2 X i 
^ X 2 



4 -T 



1 + 1 = 
i + 1 = 
f +i = 

2 X i = 
i X 2 = 



l+-i 


= 


1 - 


- i 


i -^1 


= 


i - 


- 1 


2 - f 


= 


4 - 


_ .4 
4 


§ ^ 2 


= 


1 - 


- 4 


2 4-i 


= 


1 - 


- 2 


i-^2 


= 


1 - 


- 4 


1 X i 


= 


l-i 


i X 1 


= 


1 -1 


2 X ^ 


= 


l-i 


i X 2 


= 


l-l 


X i 


= 


f-i 


i X 3 


= 


l-i 


3 x^ 


= 


3 -i 


4 X i 


= 


1 - 


_ J. 



86 HELPS FOB UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

CHAPTER XY. 

WEIGHTS, MEASURES AND MENSURATION. 

"If you wish to teach a boy linear and surface measures, furnish him 
lumber and tools and set him to work to make something. He will ac- 
quire more knowledge of these measures by one day's work than by re- 
peating tables and solving problems for six months. When he has formed 
habits of observing and thinking the study of books may supplement the 
knowledge gained from the study of things, but to reverse this order is to 
place the abstract before the concrete, the unknown before the known. 
Pupils cannot think before they have observed. Regard yourselves as the 
directors and stimulators of your pupils' powers, and your task is not a 
discouraging one." 

These vigorous remarks, clipped from an educational journal, have the 
right ring about them, although the "lumber and tools" may not be prac- 
ticable in every case. 

Few children or even adults have any very definite idea of a pint, a gal- 
lon, a peck, a yard, a pound, etc., and yet nothing is of more practical 
value in connection with school-problems than this knowledge. That 
which a child uses and handles he becomes interested in and thoroughly 
familiar with. If he measures the school-room with a foot-rule, or yard- 
stick or a tape-line, or with a pint measure he fills a gallon or a quart 
measure, or with the scales he weighs real things, all these quantities are 
much more clearly fixed in the mind and their relation to each other bet- 
ter remembered than when a much longer time is spent in dreary, uninter-. 
esting pouring over tables which convey to him very little knowledge. 

The experience of a Pennsylvania teacher may add some light on this 
subject, for the benefit of teachers in the ungraded schools. She writes 
in the National Educator as follows : — 

"I am teaching the First Primary Department, nevertheless my pupils 
are learning the tables and can use them creditably. In teaching liquid 
measure, I have the gill, pint, quart and gallon measures placed on my 
table. I am next provided with a bucket of water. The children learn 
the name of each measure and what is sometimes measured in each. I 
then ask a pupil to come forward and fill the gill with water and pour it 
into the pint measure. I have him repeat this until the pint measure is 
full. The pupils at once see that four gills make a pint. The quart meas- 
ure is then filled from the pint and they learn that two pints make a quart. 
The gallon is next filled from the quart measure, and they tell me that 
four quarts make one gallon." 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 



87 



"I have balances and weights, ranging from one-half ounce to two pounds, 
with which to work. My pupils have examined all the weights. They 
discovered for themselves that some are larger and heavier than others. 
They express their opinion about the size and weight. They find numbers 
marked on them and I tell them that the 1 on the large weight is for one 
pound, and the 1 on the very small one is for one ounce. I tell them that 
if we had sixteen of the one-ounce weights and should place them on one 
side of the balances and the pound weight on the other, we should 
find they were equal in weight. From this comparison they have found 
that sixteen ounces make a pound. In the same way each weight is ex- 
amined and the denomination of the same determined. In teaching long 
measure the foot-rule and yard-stick are used." 

After the essential facts pertaining to the different sets of weights and 
measures have been learned it is an easy matter to sum them up by 
writing a table on the. board, like the following : — 

12 inches make 1 foot. 36 inches make 1 yard. 
27 inches " f yard. 18 inches " ^ yard. 



9 inches " ^ yard. 3 feet " 1 yard. 
The Cabinet of Weights and Measures. 



Methods of teaching like the 
above cause a general demand 
for a collection of sample meas- 
ures of bulk, length and weight, 
for all grades of the public 
schools. This illustration shows 
a cabinet containing all the nec- 
essary standards, conveniently 
arranged for exhibition or use. 
The chestnut case is well-finished 
and varnished, being provided 
with two shelves and a door that 
is strongly hinged and has a 
hook, and also a lock and key. 
This chest can be screwed 
against the wall of the school- 
room or placed on a shelf. 

It will be found an exceedingly 
valuable help in "playing store," 
or in making the intelligent stu- 
dy of weights and measures both possible and a pastime for young chil- 
dren. No teacher can fully appreciate the delight of an ungraded school, 
particularly if it be in the CQuntry where modern "helps" in teaching have 
not been numerously represented, on the first day that such a collection 




88 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

is made available and the children have the opportunity to begin business 
as weighers and measurers, until she has shared it. 

The contents of the cabinet is as follows : — 
1 — A set of Fairbanks balance scales. 
2 — A set of weights from 1 lb. down to J oz. 
3 — A set of standard oak measures, well-finished, sealed, and varnished, 

1 quart, 2 quarts, 4 quarts, 8 quarts and 16 quarts. 
4 — A set of tin liquid measures, four pieces, 1 gill, 1 pint, 1 quart, 1 gal- 
lon. These are made without lips or flanges, to better convey a cor- 
rect impression of actual size, and are neatly japanned. 
5 — A fifty-ft. tape measure in brass-bound, durable case. 
6 — A good hard-wood yard-stick accurately graduated to inches and 

eighths on one side, and on the other to fractions of a yard. 
7 — A foot-rule containing inches graduated to the following fractions : — 
Fifths, tenths, twentieths, fortieths, sixths, twelfths, twenty-fourths, 
forty-eighths, eighths, sixteenths, thirty-seconds, and sixty -fourths. 
8 — A folding meter, showing decimeters, centimeters and millimeters. 
9 — A large protractor-scale, 16 inches long, for measuring angles and for 
laying them out on the blackboard. 
The style and quality of all this material is of a high grade, suitable in 
appearance and accuracy for the use intended. 

While all the standards absolutely necessary in a common school are 
found in the above list the following are exceedingly valuable for a com- 
plete demonstration of the metric system, and may be conveniently added, 
as there is room for them in the cabinet : — 

10 — A cubical liter measure, made very accurately, of heavy stock and 
well japanned to match the other liquid measures, and a balance- 
weight accompanying it for the purpose described below. 
11 — A set of metric weights, from 1 kilogram to 10 grams. 

A liter of water, which is a cubic decimeter, weighs a kilogram, and in 
order to demonstrate this a small weight is furnished with each liter meas- 
ure, which will exactly balance it on the scales. 

For an experiment, place the liter measure on one plate of the balance, 
and on the other plate put the small lead weight, and they will exactly 
balance each other. Add the kilogram weight and then pour water into 
the measure, and when full it will just balance the weights, showing that 
the cubic decimeter or liter of water weighs just one kilogram. 

A Manual Demonstration of Mensuration. 
Number work in the ungraded school will naturally reach beyond mere 
primary methods into the broader field which mathematics opens to all who 
follow that science through its different stages The apparatus shown in 
the cuts on the next page for illustrating the different problems of mensu- 
ration is the invention of L. W. Parish and is highly praised by those teach- 
ers who have put it to practical use. One exhibition of these simple man- 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 



89 



ual demonstrations to a pupil who is studying mensuration, even before 
tlie mathematical demonstration is attempted, will impress the facts more 
firmly on the mind than weeks of drilling on formulas. 




Fig. 1. 



Fig. 2. 



In the apparatus shown in figures 1 and 2 we have the manual demon- 
stration that the area of a circle is equal to the radius, multiplied by one- 
half the circumference. It consists of a large number of wooden sectors, 
attached at their bases to a couple of pliable bands of brass which can be 
jointed together so as to make a circle with a diameter of eight inches, 
as represented in figure 1. If these two semi-circumferences are straight- 
ened out two comb-like forms are secured, and by inserting the teeth of 
one set between the teeth of the other set and closing the two together 
the rectangle shown in figure 2 is obtained. The base of this rectangle is 
the semi-circumference of the circle straightened out, and its height is the 
radius of the circle. 




Fig. 3. Fig. 4, 

Areas of Triangles. 

Figures 3 and 4 demonstrate mechanically that the area of a triangle is 
equal to its base, multiplied by one-half its altitude. Figure 3 illustrates 
the problems when a perpendicular from the apex falls within the base and 
figure 4 when it falls outside the base. The former is more simple and 
later more effective. 

Both triangles are formed of polished wood and are divided in such a 
way that by simply swinging certain parts on their brass hinges they be- 
come rectangles, twelve inches long and three inches high. When the 
triangles and the sectors which form the circle are ordered at the same 
time they will be packed together in a neat box. 



90 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

Contents of Cone, Sphere and Cylinder. 
1 o2 ;5 




Fig. 5. Fig. 6. Fig. 7. 

These three pieces demonstrate the relation between the contents of a 
cone, sphere and cylinder. Figure 5 is a conical cup, three inches in di- 
ameter at the top, and three inches deep. Figure 6 is a solid sphere. 
Figure 7 is a cylindrical cup, three inches in diameter and three inches 
deep. 

Actual demonstration shows that the contents of the cone three times 
tilled with water fills the cylinder, and that if the cylinder is filled with 
water and the ball entirely immersed there will remain in the cylinder just 
water enough to fill the cone. It follows therefore that the contents of 
the three are as the numbers 1 — 2 — 3. The pieces are packed together in 
a box. 

Cube Root Blocks. 




These blocks are made in two sets, the several pieces being manufactured 
with the same care and accuracy which is bestowed on the kindergarten 
blocks. 

The above! illustration represents the No. 2 set, carrying the operation 
to two places. The solid cube in this set is one and a half inches square, 
making the complete cube two and a half inches. In the No. 1 set the 
solid cube is two inches square, with the completed cube two and a half 
inches. The blocks are made of three kinds of wood and the box is pol- 
ished cherry, with strong lock-jointed corners. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 91 

CHAPTEK Xyi. 
GEOGRAPHY. 

A good many "new-fangled" notions about the teaching of geography 
have found their way into the schools during the last few years, which 
tend to revolutionize that study in a greater degree than has been attemp- 
ted by the so called new education in any other quarter. This reform is 
aimed directly at the dry details which have too often cumbered text- 
books on geography, and is in the interest of sand modeling and certain 
Other matters on which a lack of space forbids us to dwell. 

The teaching of geography is a field of endeavor into which the teacher 
of an ungraded school can well afford to throw all her energies, particu 
larly if that school is located in the country. For where can we find a 
city child who can be made to comprehend the meaning of the natural di- 
visions of the land and water as intelligently as the country boy who has 
some of them constantly before him ? Geography is a study in which 
every pupil who is old enough to be in school at all should take an inter- 
est. Here is a sample of the kind of questions that will interest the 
youngest children, which we borrow from the American Teacher : — 

In what town do you live ? 

On what street? 

On which side of the street? 

Which way does your front door face ? 

What direction do you go in coming to school? 

On what street is the school-house ? 

In what direction from the school-house is the nearest church ? 

Name the principal street in your town and tell its direction ? 

On what street is the post-ofl3ce ? 

In what direction is the teacher's desk from the clock? 

Draw a diagram of the school-room floor. 

Draw a map of the school-yard. 

Name some officer in your town. 

If there is any river in your town name it. 

What town is north of your town ? South? East? West? 

Name the cities in your county. 

Name the rivers you have seen, not exceeding five. 

Name the mountains you have seen, not exceeding three. 

Name the lakes you have seen, not exceeding three. 

What is the county-seat of your county ? 

In what state do you live ? Name its capital. 



92 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

Who is the governor of your state? 

"Who is the president of the United States ? 

What city is the capital of the United States ? 

The trouble with very many geography recitations in the past has been 
that the pupils were "dragged through" endless pages from an iron-clad 
text-book, when the maps were poor, the language technical and the 
phraseology dry as dust. To avoid the repetition of such recitations the 
teacher must come to the rescue of the children, in a multitude of ways. 
At one time she can tell "a story of somebody's real experience in the 
country they are studying and find the book containing it for a member of 
the class to read. When they all discuss it curiosity is aroused, enthusi- 
asm awakened and the sleepy boy and indifferent girl, all hero-worship- 
pers as they are, will contribute something worthy to the general infor- 
mation. A new impetus is given to study when children become 
helpers in a recitation by telling things that they have read from real 
books. It is a good plan to devote one lesson a week to the contributions 
of the children. How they will collect pictures and specimens and find 
bits of valuable information about a far away country ! How their imag- 
inations will people it and bring it to their very doors ! By a little judi- 
cious effort the trashy novel will give way ; there will be no room for it in 
minds that are eager for the living facts stored for them in the Zigzags, 
the Bodley's, The Family Flights, Miss Brassey's Voyage in the Sunbeam 
and Price's Around the World, followed by something from Knox, Stan- 
ley, Taylor, Livingston and a host of other real travelers." 

The liberal use of charts will do a great deal to make the study of ge- 
ography interesting. The teacher who makes her own will doubtless 
prize them more than any she buys or borrows, although the exchange of 
charts between teachers from time to time may be helpful. A convenient 
home-made chart can be obtained by taking several sheets of manilla pa- 
per, 12 by 18 inches or 18 by 24, and tacking them to a piece of broom- 
handle of suitable length, having first placed a narrow strip of thick cloth 
at the top of the upper sheet, through which to drive the tacks. Collect 
such pictures from the illustrated newspapers and all other sources within 
reach as will add interest to the study of whatever part of geography you 
have in hand at the time, and fasten them to the sheets of your chart. 
Attach a string to the ends of the roller, so that the chart can be hung on 
the wall and each sheet be turned over the roller when it has been used. 
Some teachers prefer to make theii' charts in separate sheets, binding each 
one with cloth and having eyelets put in at the top. In this case the 
sheets are hung together on hooks at the beginning of the lesson, and when 
a sheet is no longer needed it is transferred to another set of hooks, by 
the side of the rest. A little experience with the charts will quickly show 
any bright teacher how useful they can be made and how much the children 
enjoy them. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 93 

Perhaps we can do our readers no greater service than to quote a sum- 
mary of "What the pupil should know in georaphy at his graduation from 
the grammar school," by Alexander E. Frye, published in Popular Educa- 
tor, which is as follows : — 

1. The general arrangement of the earth's slopes, as grouped in the great 
continental river basins ; together with the general outlines of the conti- 
nents. 

2. The heat-belts of the earth, as determined by latitude, elevation, etc. 

3. The belts of trade-winds, return trades, and principal monsoons. 

4. The general distribution of rain-fall. 

5. The division of the earth's surface into fertile and barren regions, as 
determined by soil and climate. 

6. The natural floral and faunal regions, and mining districts. 

7. The races which dwell upon these regions. 

8. The world's centers of trade, principal capital and historical cities, 
Sihontjifty in all ; and the principal routes of trade. 

9. The location of countries upon the earth's great slopes. 

10. The proper use of the atlas and gazetteer ; and above all, our pupils 
should be led to acquire a taste for good books of travel. 

The Continental Series of Dissected Maps. 

There are various advantages connected with the use of outline dissect- 
ed maps, both for school instruction and as a home diversion, which com- 
mend them to teachers and parents. These maps have peculiar features 
which render them particularly valuable helps in teaching geography. 

The set comprises outline maps of Europe, Asia, Africa, North Ameri- 
ca and South America, drawn to one scale. Heretofore the scale of a 
map has been adapted to the size of the atlas page, and many youthful 
students of geography have been led to suppose that Europe was nearly 
as large as Africa. With this series of uniform scale maps, printed in 
pleasing colors, mounted on wood three sixteenth of an inch thick, and 
cut up to the boundary lines of the continents and divisions, the child will 
gain a definite knowledge of the shape, location and relative size of each 
portion of a continent, not to be acquired by any other means. 

Covering the entire back of each map is an original design, lithographed 
in colors and depicting the principal animal and vegetable productions of 
the country, which may be the means of imparting to the pupil many ideas 
concerning lands both near and remote which we should not gain from the 
text-book alone. Indeed the thoughtful teacher will find nearly or quiet 
as much use for the backs as the fronts, as by studying the two together 
- the country and its productions are closely associated in the minds of the 
pupils. Both fronts and backs are published unmounted and in this form 
can be used in chart work. A separate map of the United States is also 
published, mounted on wood and having on the back colored lithographic 
designs showing the productions and industries of our country. 



94 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

CHAPTER XVII. 
PHYSIOLOGY. 

There is a growing demand for the teaching of physiology in all our 
public schools, and in many states it is required by law. The importance 
also of teaching the necessity of temperance in securing healthy physical, 
mental and moral development has also, in recent years, impressed itself 
on teachers, parents and even legislators. 

For children under twelve or fourteen years there is no need of a 
text-book. The teacher can give short talks on hygiene, which is the 
science of preserving the health, name the different parts of the body and 
locate them, making such outlines of their structure as shall seem proper. 
She will also find it a good plan to talk to the school familiarly about any 
violations of the laws of health which she sees are prevalent, as the wear- 
ing of wet clothing, standing in cold drafts, lying on the damp ground, 
unhealthy food and modes of eating and the use of narcotics, as well as the 
need of ventilation, a correct method of breathing, cleanliness of person 
and the care of the eyes, throat, skin and feet, together with many other 
things which will suggest themselves to the observant instructor, intent 
on developing her pupils in all those things which help to build up a well- 
rounded education. 

The teacher may not be able to prepare talks so frequently as she de- 
sires, in which case she may read a few passages from some good book on 
physiology, and explain the same to the pupils. In this way she can ful- 
fil the law, when the pupils have no books. In both methods the teacher 
should be careful to question the pupils very frequently on what has been 
told them in previous exercises. Only by so doing will they be made to 
remember these matters. If the older pupils have books, a good method 
of recitation, at least the first time going through the book, is to have the 
pupils read the lesson, very much as they would a reading lesson. As 
each pupil reads he should be questioned to see that he understands what 
is read. The teacher must also explain all diflScult passages. Good work 
can be done by this method, and it is especially commended to young 
teachers. A writer on this subject in a school publication of recent date 
says : "We are not teaching physiology in school for the sake of knowing 
all about the body, but to know that which will contribute to health and 
happiness." There is sound truth in this statement which ought never to 
be overlooked. It is also well to remember the "don'ts" while teaching 
physiology, don'ts which are sampled in this way by Warren Winthrop, in 
the American Teacher : — 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 95 

Don't teach many technical terms. Don't teach many names of bones. 
Don't teach many names of muscles. Don't pretend to be a doctor. 
Don't play the preacher. Don't be extreme. 

Don't trouble yourself about the cm-iosities of physiology. Don't 
prove too much by any fact. 

THINGS TO DO IN TEACHING PHYSIOLOGY. 

Teach facts. Teach only valuable facts. 

Make valuable facts interesting. 

Teach children to observe physiological facts and phenomena. 

Teach children to think about these things. 

The Human Body Charts. 

While good text-books are an excellent help in the study of physiology 
it is evident that other aids are necessary, in order to secure the best re- 
sults. An eye from an ox or sheep, a joint from a chicken or a piece of 
muscle, bone or cartilage, in the hands of an enthusiastic teacher, are often 
of far more value to the pupils than a long list of text-book lessons. 

In addition to such means as these many school boards recognize the 
necessity of placing in every school-room a reliable set of charts illustrat- 
ing the mechanism of the human body and the effects of intemperance 
on it. In these charts the multiplication of detail found in the charts 
made for use in the higher school grades and in surgical works is avoided, 
as unnecessary in elementary teaching and confusing to the child, while 
the general facts which should be presented in an ungraded school are 
treated with great care. In selecting the subjects for the charts those 
have been omitted which can be illustrated by the teacher from life. The 
muscles have not been shown in detail, because, being for the most part 
near the surface, their action can be explained by the real muscles found 
in the faces and arms of the pupil. For the same reason the external or- 
gans, such as the outer parts of the ear, eye, nose, lips, etc., have not 
been elaborated. Nothing is done with comparative anatomy because sam- 
ples from the marketman are better than any diagrams and the teacher can 
easily procure, if she will, a valuable museum of such parts as can be pre- 
served, while the class will willingly provide those that are more perisha- 
ble, from time to time. 

A reference to the accompanying illustrations will show that the Human 
Body Charts are intended for instruction in anatomy, physiology, hygiene 
and temperance. A complete hand-book goes with each set, giving not 
only a description of the several figures, but also many valuable statistics 
and suggestions relative to the different branches of the subject. 

Chart No. 1, contains ten figures, principally devoted to the bones, in- 
cluding a full skeleton thirty-three inches high, detailed drawings of the 
skull, vertebrae, hand, foot, kneejoint, etc., and carefully studied draw- 
ings of the teeth, about double size, and a sectional view of one tooth 
greatly enlarged. 



96 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



Chart No. 2, contains fourteen figures, the location and arrangement of 
the organs of the trunk being indicated in one of them. Another shows 
very clearly the bronchial tubes and the circulation of the blood, 
three being devoted to the principal muscles of the arm and the lower part 

/ V 





No. 1. 



No. 2. 





No. 3. 



TEMPERANCE. 



of the leg, with their connection with the bones and mechanical action in 
the movement of the limbs. The relative condition of a healthy stomach 
and those brought on by stimulents are portrayed in three figures. The 
baneful effects of tight-lacing are illustrated, and the heart is represented 
as a double force-pump, with mechanical valves and pipes, through which 
the blood is shown as flowing, changing from blue to red while traversing 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 97 

the lungs, and from red to blue while circulating through the upper and 
lower parts of the body. 

Chart No. 3. contains sixteen figures and is chiefly devoted to the ner- 
vous system and the five senses, which are illustrated very clearly as be- 
ing of special interest and value in primary instruction. In this chart are 
several figures i-epresenting the throat, nose and ear, which have been 
drawn from nature with great care, and illustrate these organs very accu- 
rately. 

The temperance chart displays four strong portraits illustrating the ef- 
fects of intemperance on the human face : Temperance Man, Moderate 
Drinker, Hard Drinker and subject of Delerium Tremens. Four corres- 
ponding views of the interior of the stomach supplement the portraits. 
The healthy and fatty hearts are compared. The fatty liver and hob- 
nailed liver are shown. Healthy and shriveled blood corpuscles, and 
sphygmographic tracings of heart-beats indicate the effect of intemperance 
in the blood and its circulation. Graphic representations of the census 
returns concerning the relative expenditures for rum and the necessities 
of life complete an argument for temperance which has never been sur- 
passed for force, truthfulness and artistic effect. 

In presenting the subject of physiology to the pupils blackboard and 
object lessons can be made very valuable. With the younger children the 
practice of locating the different parts of the body as they are mentioned, 
whenever practicable, will be found of great assistance. The hand-book 
can be made to supplement any of the excellent text-books already in use, 
or in the absence of other books on the subject, may serve as a guide to 
the charts and an elementary text-book, covering essentially the ground 
required by the school laws of most states. 



98 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



CHAPTER XYIII. 
PHYSICAL TRAINING. 

To argue that gymnastic exercises are not as essential in most ungraded 
schools as they are in the city graded schools would, perhaps, be an easy 
task, just as it might be to show that manual training in its various forms, 
including knife work, and the sewing, cooking, etc., is of less importance 
to country children as a part of their school course than it is for their city 
cousins who have so few of those things, even in a modified form, in their 
homes. But while it may be true that the country boys and girls get 
plenty of physical exercise out of school it does not follow that the intro- 
duction of light gymnastics during school hours will not be a welcome di- 
version to them, as well as a source of benefit, and the teacher is also 
likely to find in such exercises a helpful means of discipline. 

One of the good signs of the times, remarks the editor of a leading ed- 
ucational journal, is the increasing interest in physical education. And 
he goes on to say that the same enthusiasm prevailed thirty years ago, and 
to express the hope that this time it has come to stay. "This everlasting 
pulling away at the memory and nerves of the child at the expense of his 
physical structure is wrong, and to prevent it there should be the same 
systematic training of the body, and under competent instructors, as there 
is of the mind. The kindergarten is well, and so are the cooking school, 
and manual training, but these cannot take the place of exercises, careful- 
ly and philosophically arranged. Physical education should be directed 
to the development or drawing out of the physical faculties of the body, 
just as ordinary literary education is directed to the development of the 
mental faculties." 

Most educators have come to recognize the fact that mind and body are 
complementary to each other, and that, as co-ordinate parts of a whole, 
their development should be simultaneous. 

The brain is our sole physical organ of thought, and the work which it 
does is immediately dependent upon the quality and amount of blood 
which is sent to it by the circulatory system. Since the condition of the 
blood, moreover, is largely dependent upon its unrestricted flow to all 
parts of the body and upon its free oxidation, physical exercise becomes 
an important factor in mental training and is a legitimate and useful j)art 
of school work. 

It is not possible in this little manual to enter into the physiology or 
philosophy of movements, but merely to suggest a few that are approved 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 



99 



to teachers who are desirous of making a beginning with their pupils in 
systematized exercise. 

Whenever gymnastics are attempted it is absolutely essential that the 
clothing of the pupil should, in all cases, be sufficiently loose to admit of 
free and unimpeded movement. In class work it is impossible to give 
much special attention to any one pupil, and out of twenty-five or fifty 
pupils there may be a few, who from individual peculiarity, are unable to 
profit from some part of the exercises, and these exceptional cases should 
be carefully noted. 

Accuracy should be insisted upon and no new movements undertaken 
while those already given are carelessly performed, but the exercises 
should be sufficiently diversified to be entertaining and should never be 
allowed unduly to tax the mind. 

It is well to begin with a few movements for the upper extremities and 
jpass then to the lower extremities. After this, breathing and other exer- 
cises for the middle third of the body may be given, returning again to 
general movement, if desired. 

The air in the room must be fresh and pure, while the temperature du- 
ring exercises should never be over 66° (Fahr.) or under 60°. After ex- 
ercising the pupils must throw some wrap over the shoulders for a few 
moments or until the temperature of the room is 70° 

A Lesson in Dumb-bell Movements. 
We insert here a sample lesson in dumb-bell movements from a little 
book by Helen Clark Swazey entitled "Suggestions for Gymnastic Exer- 
cises in Schools," published by Milton Bradley Co. , which runs as follows : — 
Position. — Head erect, shoulders square to the front and falling evenly, 
hips back, trunk erect, heels together, arms at side 
low ; palms front, grasping bells firmly, the head of 
the bell pointing in toward the thigh. See Fig. 1. 
1. Turn the bells half-way round, so that the 
backs of the hands shall be toward the front. 
Turn half-way round again, to first position, and con- 
tinue the movement sixteen times. On the last beat 
of the measure bring the hands to the hips, as in 
Fig. 2, ready to change, on the first beat of the 
next measure make the first forward charge. . 

For the charge, imagine the foot-mark ^''\. pro- 
longed. Upon this prolonged diagonal line place 
the right foot at a distance of a foot and a half or 
two feet from the left foot. Throw the weight on 
the right foot, bending strongly at the knee and 
turning the head strongly over the right shoulder, in 
a line with the right elbow and right knee. 
Fig. 1 . The parts of the charge should be taken simulta- 




100 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 



neously. See Fig. 2. The charge should occupy the same time as the 
movement, that is, eight accented and eight unaccented beats ; on the 
last beat return to the position of Fig. 1, except that the hands are re- 
tained on the hips. This position is held eight beats, or half the time oc- 
cupied by the charge. On the eighth beat, the arms are thrust quickly to 
side horizontal, palms up, and held in this position during eight more 
counts. 

2. Turn the bells half-way round, so that the palms are downward. 
Continue the movement back and forth through sixteen counts, on the last 
count bringing the arms to the side, and charging as in No. 1, Fig. 2, ex- 
cept that this charge is made to the left and the head turned over the left 
shoulder. 

3. Come back to position as before, and on the last half of the eighth 
count extend the arms at front horizontal, palms up. Turn the bells as in 
Nos. 1 and 2, bringing them to the hips on the last half of the sixteenth 
count, ready for the third forward charge, and on the first beat of the 
next measure charge, as in Fig. 2, turning the head, however, over the 
opposite shoulder. Come to position as before, and on the last part of the 
fourth count bring the arms up to about an angle of 45° from front hori- 
zontal, palms facing inward. 

4. Hold through eight beats as in 
the other numbers, and turn bells 
back and forth as before, placing the 
hands on the hips ready for the fourth 
forward charge, which is taken on the 
last half of the sixteenth count. This 
charge is like the second forward 
charge, except that the head is 
turned over the opposite instead of 
the same shoulder. Come to position 
as in the other numbers, dropping the 
hands to the side low, as in Fig. 1. 
Hold through eight counts ; on the first 
beat of the next measure bring bells 
to front horizontal, palms down, strik- 
ing the bells with the thumb-ends of 
the bells towards each other, — strike 
the little-finger-ends of the bells be- 
hind the back, Fig. 3. The bells Fi». 2. 

should be struck firmly in front and lightly behind the back. Continue 
the movement through sixteen counts. On the last half of the last count 
bring the bells to the chest, the wrists resting against the thorax. The 
chest should be thrown- forward and the shoulders drawn back. Fig. 4. 

5. From first position of Fig. 4, push the bells down strongly to side 




A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 101 



low. Alternate the movement eight times, and take it double eight times. 
Come to position for charging with the bells at the hips, as in the previous 
charges. 





Fig. 3. 



Fig. 4. 



Imagine a line about two feet back of the 
right diagonal of a foot-mark, and parallel 
with it. Upon this line place the right foot. 
The feet should be at right angles with each 
other. The weight is thrown on the left leg, 
which is bent at the knee ; the head is turned 
over the opposite shoulder from the direction 
of the charge, Fig. 5. Hold the charging po- 
sition until the last half of the sixteenth count, 
when the return is made to the first position of 
Fig. 4. 

6. From the first position of Fig. 4, thrust 
alternately and doubly to side horizontal, as 
indicated in the same figure, coming to position 
on the last half of the sixteenth count for the 
second backward charge, which is the same as 
the first backward charge, Fig. 5, except that 
it is made to the right, and the head is turned 

over the left shoulder. Come to position on the last half of the sixteenth 

count. Hold through eight counts. Bring the bells to side low. Hold 

through eight more counts in this position. 

7. Strike the bells at the thumb-ends at front horizontal, palms down. 

Strike behind the back at the little-finger-ends, palms forward. Strike 




Fig. 5. 



102 



HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 




Fig. 6. 



over head thumb-ends of the bells, palms front. Stop the striking on the 
fifteenth count, bringing the bells to the first position of Fig. 4, on the 
sixteenth count. 

8. Thrust the bells alternately and doub- 
ly from the first position of Fig. 4, to front 
horizontal, coming to position for the third 
backward charge, which is like the first 
backward charge. Fig. 5, except that the 
head is turned toward the same side as that 
on which the charge is made. Come to first 
position of Fig. 4, as before. 

9 . Thrust the bells alternately and doub- 
ly to vertical. Keep the elbows stiff and 
bring the arms close to the ears. Come to 
position for fourth backward charge. This 
charge is the same as the second backward 
charge, except that the head is turned tow- 

• ard the same side as that on which the 
charge is made. 

10. Come to position on the last half of 
the sixteenth count with the arms parallel 
in front, the elbows stiff, wrists firm and 
heads of bells extended up and down. 
Twist the body to the right and to the left, 
keeping the feet firmly in position on the 
floor and the arms parallel, Fig. 6. 

11. Bring bells to top of shoulders, as 
in Fig. 7. Thrust up to vertical, as in same 
figure, rising on the toes as the bells are 
thrust up. Bring the bells back to the top 
of shoulders. Stoop, hitting the bells on 
the floor at the side of the feet. Return 
bells to shoulder and repeat. 

Remark. — The charging positions may 
be made stronger by increasing the distance 
of the charge and by bending the charging 
knee more strongly. In returning to a po- 
sition after a charge the pressure should be 
made upon the ball of the charging foot, and 
the pupil should come back to position with 
a slight springiness of movement. Heavy 
movements and dragging the feet should be 
Fig. 7. avoided. For examples of other exercises 

with dumb-bells, wands and rings, as well as without apparatus, the reader 
is referred to Miss Swazey's book. A price-list of dumb-bells, wands 
and rings will be found in the supplement of this manual. 




A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 103 



CHAPTER XIX. 
CONCERNING THE KINDERGARTEN. 

Having referred so many times to the kindergarten in the preceding 
pages, it may be well to present here a brief summary of the past history 
and present methods of that system of primary education. The question 
just how much of this system can be profitably employed in ordinary pri- 
mary-school work is likely to be a perplexing one for a long time to come, 
and the answer will always depend considerably on circumstances. Mean- 
while the wide-awake primary teacher is bound to know what she can about 
the kindergarten methods and how to use them. 

The origin of the kindergarten, a common-sense and eminently practical 
method of instruction, dates back to the year 1805, when a very peculiar 
and in many respects very wonderful man — Friedrich Froebel — was prov- 
identially turned aside from a cherished plan of becoming an architect, 
to the profession of schoolmaster. 

Friedrich Wilhelm August Froebel was born, according to his own state- 
ment, "in the Thuringian forest in Oberweissbach, a village of Schwarz- 
burg, April 21, 1782." Soon after 1805 he became acquainted with Pes- 
talozzi, who had already made a great advance in the methods of teaching 
then practiced. Froebel was evidently a man of very delicate feelings and 
not well adapted to fighting his way through the world. It is related of 
him that at one time he carried a letter from his brother unopened for sev- 
eral days, fearing it contained news that would frustrate some plan he had 
formed for his future life. "When playing with the childi-en under his 
charge the neighbors used to call him "the old fool." The world would 
have been benefited by the lives of more such fools. 

After the establishment of the kindergarten in Germany the Prussian 
government forbade its introduction into the public schools, because the 
royal authorities were keen enough to anticipate that thinking citizens, not 
willing subjects to tyrannical oppresion, would go forth from them. The 
founder was hunted from place to place in his own fatherland, simply ow- 
ing to his too liberal mode of education, and his treatment doubtless has- 
tened his death, which occured June 21, 1852. 

Having heard of Froebels career. Miss Elizabeth Peabody endeavored 
to work out the principles of the kindergarten in primary teaching in Bos- 
ton, but utterly failing to obtain results that satisfied her critical judgment, 
she went to Europe in 1867, to spend a year in close study of Froebels 
methods, returning full of the spirit of the work. 



104 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

Since that time, through the self-sacrificing devotion of Miss Peabody 
and a goodly number of other enthusiastic and talented educators, the 
cause has been vigorously advanced, throughout the entire country, until 
the leading advocates of the kindergarten and former associates of Froe- 
bel in Europe are looking with great interest to America as the most 
promising field for the rapid advancement of this grand movement. 

FrcEbel at first had the idea most prominent in his mind of introducing 
his new education into families through the mothers, but that was soon 
seen to be impracticable, for two reasons. First, the mother could not 
devote the necessary time to the subject, and, secondly, by such an ar- 
rangement half the value of the method would be lost, as a real kinder- 
garten is a perfect little democracy where the social relations are as valu- 
able as any other part of the instruction. 

"Kindergarten," in its literal translation, means "children-garden," and 
this name was given it as a place where the growth of the bodies and minds 
of the little ones is to be carefully developed, as the floral offspring of 
beautiful nature are nursed and lovingly fostered by the experienced florist 
in a flower-garden. In its application the kindergarten intends to be a 
practical solution of the momentous question, "What kind of treatment is 
conformable to a child's bodily and mental development during the socond 
and third biennium of his life ?" 

From the moment when the child brings one motion in relation to an- 
other — asserting that a thing is, how a thing is, and that a thing does some- 
thing — the mind commences its operations ; the child begins to think. No 
sooner has this event taken place — the first in the mental life of the indi- 
vidual — than the child instinctively shows his desire to enlarge his treasure 
of knowledge. Hence his innumerable questions. "What is? how is? 
and what does this or that do?" And happy the child whose questions 
are answered logically, always encouragingly, but in accordance with his 
power of comprehension. The interchange of thoughts is the best exer- 
cise for strengthening his perceptive and conceptive faculties, and by it 
only can be laid the foundation for a sound and sharp reasoning. 

The question, "How can this be done most successfully?" has been an- 
swered with perfect satisfaction by the "kindergai'ten," which, far from 
being a "school" in the usual sense of the word, is nothing but the 
common nursery of several families, who have united for the purpose of 
having their little ones occupied during a part of the day, under the 
superintendence of a person who has made this branch of education a 
special study. Unfolding of bodily and mental powers, creating and en- 
livening aesthetic feeling, inculcating moral principles by example and pre- 
cept, and strengthening the desire for activity, knowledge and perfection, 
are its tasks ; in short, harmonious development of true, pure human na- 
ture is the praiseworthy aim of the kindergarten. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 105 

A List of the Kindergarten Material. 

We give below a descriptive list of all the material which is geaerally 
accepted as belonging to the kindergarten, comprising that originally de- 
vised and adopted by Frcfibel and such additions as have since been approved 
by the leading kindergartners of Europe and America. There are at pres- 
ent twenty divisions of this material, know as gifts and occupations. The 
first nine and the fifteenth, sixteenth and seventeenth are called gifts 
alone, the others being termed gifts or occupations. 

According to Prof. Hailmann, "The gifts are intended to give the child 
from time to time universal aspects of the external world, suited to his 
powers of comprehension. The occupations, on the other hand, furnish 
the child with materials on which to exercise certain phases of skill." 

Fh'st Gift. — Six soft balls of various colors — aim to teach color — right 
and left — to develop the eye, movement of hands, arms and feet in vari- 
ous plays. 

Second Gift. — Sphere, cube and cylinder, made of wood. Aim to teach 
form, to notice similarity and dissimalarity of objects ; sides, corners and 
edges of cube explained and counted ; qualities and actions of sphere, 
cube, and cylinder different, owing to their difference in shape. Sphere 
viewed from all sides looks alike ; but cube and cylinder present different 
forms, according to the manner in which we look at them. 

Third Gift. — Large cube, consisting of eight small cubes. 

Fourth Gift. — Large cube, consisting of eight oblong blocks. 

Fifth Gift. — Large cube, consisting of twenty-one whole, six half, and 
twelve quarter-cubes. 

Sixth Gift. — Large cube, consisting of eighteen whole, and three length- 
wise and breadthwise divided, oblong blocks. 

These four gifts serve as building blocks, and for this purf)ose — one of 
the most perfect, interesting, and developing features of the kindergax-ten 
— there are an endless variety of plans to be carried out, one surpassing 
the other in interest and beauty. 

Seventh Gift. — Quadrangular and triangular tablets of wood for laying 
figures. In the occupation with these tablets, as also in that with the ma- 
terial of the previous four gifts, the law of opposities, and their mediation 
and combination, is constantly followed. In the six previous gifts the 
child has to do with solids ; with the tablets comes the use. of the planes, 
which are followed by the introduction of the embodied straight line in the 
eighth gift, and the curved line in the ninth gift. 

Eighth Gift. — Consists of staffs or wands for laying figures. 

Ninth Gift. — Consists of whole and half wire rings, also for laying fig- 
ures. 

The staffs and rings are used as preparatory to the drawing occupations. 
The former are also employed, as are most of the previous gifts, for the 
purpose of teaching numerical proportions. That which is usually called 



106 HELPS FOR UNGRADED SCHOOLS. 

the multiplication table is taught by means of these gifts, by actual obser- 
vation. 

Tenth Gift. — Material for drawing, consisting of slate and sheets of pa- 
per ruled in various ways, and pencils of different colors. 

Eleventh Gift. — Material for perforating. 

Twelfth Gift. — Material for embroidering. 

For these two occupations lithographed paper is prepared, and with a 
perforating needle the pupils pierce the representations in it, to which 
they subsequently give the natural colors of the objects, by employing 
worsted or silk. Starting from a straight line of one-eighth of an inch, 
they produce, in course of time, the most beautiful representations of nat- 
ural and artificial objects — mute, eloquent tokens of an early-acquired 
taste in regard to form and color, and of manual dexterity and skill rare- 
ly witnessed in children of such tender age. 

Thirteenth Gift. — Cutting of paper, and combining the parts so produced 
into figures. Squares of paper are folded in different ways, and are cut, 
according to marks on them, by the pupils. The child's propensity to use 
scissors, and to destroy by doing it, is here guided in such an ingenious 
manner that the most astonishing results are secured. 

Fourteenth Gift. — Material for weaving or braiding. 

Strips of colored paper, are, by means of a steel needle of peculiar con- 
struction, woven into a differently colored sheet of paper, which is cut in- 
to strips throughout its entire surface, except a margin at each end to con- 
fine the strips in place. The greatest variety of designs are produced, and 
the inventive powers of teacher and pupil constantly increase their num- 
ber. 

Fifteenth 6??jri5.— Slats for interlacing. 

Sixteenth Gift. — Jointed slat with four, six, eight, and sixteen links. 

The slats of the fifteenth gift — ten inches long and one-fourth inch 
broad — are used to construct objects by interlacing them. The jointed 
slat with several links is used to produce various forms, by changing the 
direction of the links. 

Seventeenth Gift. — Paper strips for lacing. 

Paper strips of various colors — eight or ten inches long, and folded 
lengthwise — are used to represent a variety of fanciful forms, by bending 
and twisting them according to certain rules. 

Eighteenth Gift. — Material for paper folding. 

Square pieces of paper are here used to form variously shaped objects 
by folding. The variety is endless, and the work prepares the pupil for 
many a useful and similar manual performance in practical life. 

Nineteenth Gift. — Material for Peas-work. 

Pointed wires or sticks are joined at the ends by soaked peas, bits of 
cork or bees-wax, forming outline models or frames representing the vari- 
ous solid forms. 



A MANUAL OF EDUCATIONAL MATERIAL. 107 

Twentieth Gift. — Material for modeling. 

Moist clay is used to form various shapes representing geometric solids, 
or objects of life. Clay modeling is now recognized as the first step in art 
education, preceding drawing, and it has for many years been prominent 
in the kindergarten as one of the most useful occupations, covering the 
entire course of instruction. 

The careful observer will perceive, in perusing the above list of occu- 
pation material, how systematically it is arranged, and how successfully, 
through the whole series of gifts the two leading ideas have been com- 
bined, to amuse and instruct at the same time. For a more detailed de- 
scription of the kindergarten material the reader is advised to send for the 
kindergarten catalogue of Milton Bradley Co. 

We must admire the inventive genius of the great originator of this sys- 
tem, in preparing all these means of education — excellent as they are sim- 
ple ; affording, as it were, an inexhaustible treasure of elementary ideas 
of human nature, and, in the mean time, holding up before our eyes the 
beautiful aim to develop the child during the period of his mind's awaken- 
ing for the future man, and to endow him with the two most reliable safe- 
guards of happiness on his journey through life — love for occupation and a 
desire to imitate and cultivate all that is good, true, noble, useful and 
beautiful. 

For a list of books giving instruction in kindergarten methods and de- 
sirable for use in directing the kindergarten songs and games the teacher 
is referred to the concluding pages of this book. 



PRICE-LIST OF 

Educational Material 

Manufactured by 

MILTON BRADLEY COMPHNY, 

Arranged in the same order as in this book. 

A * indicates that the article cannot be sent by mail. 



CHAPTER I. 



Sentence Builder, per box, . . . 

Word Builder, per box, . ... 

Word Making Tablets, per box, 

Language Tablets, per box, . . . . 

CHAPTER II. 

Geometrical surfaces and solids, per box, 

Bailey's development of surfaces, per set, . . . 

CHAPTER III. 

Best refined clay, brick 5 pounds, .... 

Prarafflne, brick 4x4x8 in 

" " 2x4x8 •' 

" " 2x4x4 " 

Dozen modeling knives, 

Squared enameled cloth, per yard, 

CHAPTER IV. 
The Inch Cubes. 

1000 assorted colored cubes, in bulk, 

1000 plain cubes, in bulk, 

100 colored cubes, in paper box, , 

100 plain cubes, in paper box, 

27 colored cubes, in paper box, . . . . 

Small box, 36 of Mrs. Hailmann's beads, . . . . , 

Beads, per gross, 

Beads, per 1000, 

Each package of coated papers contains 1000 pieces 
Circles, 1 inch in diameter, assorted colors, . . . . , 
" 1 " " " six col's and tints, grays and black, 

" 1 " " " six colors, 

Squares, 1 inch, six colors and tints, grays and black, 

" 1 inch, assorted colors and shades, 

" 1 inch, six colors, . . 

Owing to the methods of manufacture it is impossible for us 
to furnish these papers in any other colors or assortment 
of colors from those indicated. 

Plain Straws. 

100 straws, 10 inches long, . . 

1000 straws | inches long, in a box, 

1000 straws 1 inch long, in a box, 

Colored Straws. 
100 straws, 10 inches long, in six colors, . . . . , 

1000 straws, I inches long, in a box, 

1000 straws, 1 inch long, in a box, 

Pegs and Peg-boards. 
1000 round pegs, in paper box, , 



Price. Postage. 


$0.14 


free 


.12 


free 


.25 


free 


.35 


free 


2.00 


fO.40 


.25 


.07 


*.25 




*.75 




*.40 




*.20 




.25 


.02 


1.00 


.30 


*5.50 




*4.50 




.60 


.30 


.50 


.30 


.18 


.10 


.12 


.02 


.40 


.05 


2.00 


.30 


.18 


.02 


.18 


.02 


.18 


.02 


.18 


.02 


.18 


.02 


.18 


.02 



.10 
.25 
.30 

.15 
.35 

.45 



.20 



.05 
.05 
.06 

.05 
.05 
.06 

.04 



MILTON BRADLEY CO'S PRICE-LIST. 



1000 large square pegs, in paper box, . . . . . 

3000 small square pegs, per box, 

1 dozen boards, 

Drawing Stencils. 

No 1 stencils, per box, 

No 2 stencils, per box, 

CHAPTER V. 

Color Tablets and Gelatine Films 
1 box, with complete outfit, 
1 set of gelatine films, in envelope, 
12 sets of 2-inch color tablets, in box, 
1 set 4-inch tablets, in envelope, 
Colored pencils, 7 inches long, each. 
Colored pencils 4^ inches long, each. 
Colored pencils, 44 inches long, assorted, 6 in a box, 
Colored slate pencils in wood, three colors each, . 

For a more detailed description of this material send for cata- 
logue of School Aids and Material. 

CHAPTER VI. 
Colored Sticks. 
1000 sticks, 5 inches, ... 



1000 




4 


1000 




3 


1000 




2 


1000 




1 


1000 




1 


1500 




1 



1 to 5 inches, assorted, in paper box, 
1 to 5 inches, assorted in wooden box, 
The wooden box containing fifteen hundred assorted sticks, 
is finely polished and has five compartments, but cannot 
be mailed without injury to the contents. 

Plain Diagonal Sticks. 
1000 sticks, 5 inches square, 



1000 




4 


1000 




3 


1000 




2 


1000 




1 


1500 




1 



1 to 5 inches square, assorted, in wooden box, 
CHAPITER VII. 
100 primary pricked sewing cards, with box, 
1 dozen envelopes of embroidery design cards, 14 in each, 
1 " spools of cotton, assorted colors 
1 " pricking needles in handle, . . . 
1 " felt cushions for perforating, . . . 

Cooley's Writing Embroidery Cards 
1 school box, 50 cards of one letter, . . 
1 family box, 25 assorted cards of our own selection, 
1 dozen cards, selected by the buyer, 

CHAPTER VITI. 
50 of Mrs. Hailraann's mats and fringes, engine colored papers, 
25 mats and fringes, coated papers, Z — 10 only, 
1 dozen Ball weaving needles, ..... 
1 dozen Bradley weaving needles, .... 

1 dozen Improved weaving needles, ... 
For the detailed list of material used for weaving mats of dif- 
ferent sizes, the reader is referred to our Kindergarten 
catalogue. 

CHAPTER IX. 
Papers For Folding. 

100 squares, 4x4, engine colored, 

100 equilateral triangles, 4 inches on side, engine colored, . 



Price. Postage. 


$0.15 


$0.09 


.15 


.11 


*1.75 




.25 


.08 


.25 


.08 


1.00 


.20 


.10 


.01 


.25 


.09 


.10 


.03 


.06 


.01 


.02 


.01 


.10 


.02 


.05 


.02 



.35 
.30 
.25 
.20 
.15 
.25 
.60 



.11 
.09 
.07 
.05 
.03 
.08 
.22 



.25 


.15 


.20 


.12 


.15 


.09 


.12 


.06 


.08 


.03 


. . .40 


.22 


.50 


.15 


1.75 


.25 


.60 


.10 


.35 


.02 


.50 


.25 


.40 


free 


.30 


free 


.12 


free 


)ers, . .25 


.04 


.15 


.02 


.60 


.03 


.50 


.03 


.45 


.02 



.12 

.20 



.04 

.03 



MILTON BRADLEY GO'S PRICE-LIST. 



100 circles, 4 inches diameter, engine colored, 
100 pieces, squares, 4x4, coated paper, . 
400 equilateral triangles, 4x4, coated paper, . 
100 circles, 4 inches diameter, coated paper, . 

CHAPTER XI. 

100 sheets practice drawing paper. 

Primary drawing tablets, per set, . 

Springfield support for drawing-models, each, 

1 dozen school rule, 

1 dozen mechanic's scale, 

1 gross mechanic's scale,. 

1 dozen international rule, . 

1 gross international rule. 

The Springfield Industrial Drawing Kit 
Kit No. 1, sample set, without pad, 
Kit No. 1, sample set, ordinary pad, 
Kit No. 1, sample set, extra-quality pad. 
Kit No. 2, sample set, without pad, (not mailable). 
No. 1, blackboard compasses, each. 
No. 2, blackboard compasses, " 
"Matchless" pencil compasses, " 
Beam compasses, •■' 

Graduated yard-stick, " 

Springfield pantagraph , ' ' 

CHAPTER XII. 
Kendall's Chromatic Numeral Frame. 
No. 1, 12 wires, turned lower bar, each, 
No. 2, 10 wires, turned lower bar, " 
No. 3, 12 wires, square frame, " • 

Large pegs for counters, per box, . 
Primary counting blocks, per box, 

Parish's Primary Number Tablets. 

Set A, wooden tablets, per box, 

Set B, wooden tablets, per box, . . . 
Set A, card-board tablets, per envelope, .... 
Set B, card-board tablets, per envelope, .... 

Du Shane's Figure Cards. 

1 sample box, 

12 boxes 



Price. Postage. 

$0.20 )$0.03 

.20 .04 

.25 .03 

.25 .03 



.15 
.25 

*.25 
.25 
.10 

.*.75 

.10 

*.75 

.35 

.50 

.55 

*.50 

*1.00 

*.50 

.25 
*.25 
*.10 

.50 



*.75 

*65 

*.65 

.15 

n.25 

.20 
.25 
.12 
.15 



Number builder per box, 

Reed's card-board objects, per dozen sheets, . 

CHAPTER XIII. 
The Educational Clock Dials. 
12-inch dial, cloth-bound and varnished, each, 
12-inch dial, on thick card, each, . 
4^-inch dial, on thick card, each 

4Mnch dial, per dozen, 

Sample box, educational toy money. 
For a detailed list of prices for the money when sold in bulk 
send for a catalogue of School Aids and Material. 
"Buying and selling" per box, 

CHAPl'ER XIV. 

Teachers' fraction discs, per set, 

Pupils' fraction discs, per set, 

CHAPTER XV. 

Cabinet of weights and measures 

Cubical leter measure, 

Set of metric weights, , . . 



.25 

*2.50 

.12 

.12 



.50 
.25 
.12 
1.25 
.25 



.30 
.12 



.06 
fi-ee 

.08 
.04 

.04 



free 
free 
free 



.02 



.05 



.09 



.06 

.09 

free 

free 

free 

free 
.05 



.20 
.12 
.02 
.16 
free 



.50 free 



.06 
free 



*10.00 

*.60 

*1.50 



MILTON BRADLEY GO'S PBICE-LIST. 



Apparatus illustrating area of circle, per set, 
Areas of two triangles, per set, 
Two triangles and the circle sectors, 
Contents of cone, sphere and cylinder, per set, 
No. 1 cube root blocks, to one place, per box, 
No. 2 cube root blocks, to two places per box, 

CHAPTER XVI. 
Dissected Maps. 

Europe, size, 12x9 . 

Asia, size, 21^x20i . 

Africa, size, 17xl8i . 

North American, size, 18x20 

South American, size, 15x19, 

Set of five maps. 

United States, in states-wood, each 

United States, paper-board, each. 

Puzzle map, United States, in paper box, 

Puzzle map. North America, in paper box, 

CHAPTER XVII 
The Human Body Chakts. 

Full set of 4 charts, in No. 1 style 

Full set of 4 charts, in No. 2 style, 

Full set No. 3 style (spring-roller cases), .... 
Set of three charts, without Special Temperance chart, in No. 

or No. 2 style, 

Set of three charts, in No. 3 style, (spring-roller cases). 
Special Temperance chart in No. 2 style, .... 
Special Temperance chart, in No. 3 style ,. . , . 

CHAPTER XVIII. 



Dumb-bells. 



No 
2. 
4. 



KSTIMATED WEIGHT 

OF EACH Piece. 

3 oz 

7 oz 



Price. Postage. 


$1.25 


$0.15 


1.15 


.15 


2.50 


.25 


.75 


.20 


.60 


.10 


.80 


.10 


*.75 




*1.25 




*1.25 




*1.25 




*1.25 




*5.00 




*1.00 




. .50 


.20 


.25 


.06 


.15 


.02 


4.00 


.45 


4.00 


.45 


*6.75 




3.00 


.35 


*5.00 




1.50 


.15 


*2.00 





Length outside Diameter 

OF Balls. of Balls. 

7 in 2 in. . . . 

8 in 2.i in. . . 

5 81 in 2| in 10 oz 

6 9iin 3 in 12 oz 

7 91 in 3i in 15 oz 

The postage on the dum-bells is a cent on ounce. 

CHAPTER XIX. 

For a price-list of all Kindergarten material see Kindergarten catalogue 



Price, per 
Pair. 



$0.20 
30 
35 
40 
45 



BOOKS FOR TEACHERS. 

All these books will be mailed for the prices quoted. 

PARADISE OF CHILDHOOD. 

By Edward Wiehe. Revised Edition. — This standard work was the first illus- 
trated guide to the Kindergarten ever published in the English language, and is 
still the only complete guide covering the whole ground. It is an exponent of 
pure Froebelian Kindergartning, and forms the best possible foundation for the 
building of a complete Kindergarten education. No book can take the place of 
practical observation and experience, but the Paradise of Childhood is very 
valuable to any parent or teacher who desires to look into this popular method of 
child-culture. Some years since we published A Hand Book for the Kinder- 
garten, which consisted of the illustrations from Paradise of Childhood, 
prefaced with brief text by the ladies of the Florence, Mass., Kindergarten. This 
work was highly recommended ^y Miss E. P. Peabody, and sold for f 1.00. 

The growing interest in tVe Kindergarten methods has increased the demand 
for the more detailed manua/ to such an extent that the call for the Hand Book 
is too limited to warrant its continued publication, but in order to preserve the 
valuable chapters which it contains, they have been added to the revised edition 
of the Paradise of Childhood, without any increase in price, so that this 
standard and complete work now contains, in addition to the original text, a pa- 
per on Kindergarten Culture, added some years since, and the text of the Hand 
Book, making altogether one hundred pages of text and seventy-six pages of lith- 
ographic plates, at a price which brings it within the reach of every teacher and 
parent. One volume, 4to. Price, paper covers, $1.50; cloth, $2.00 

THE KINDERGARTEN AND THE SCHOOL. 

By Four Active Workers. — The book comprises five papers as follows : Froebel — 
The Man and His Work, hy Anne L. Page; The Theory of Froebel's Kindergarten 
System, hy Angeline Brooks ; The Gifts ind Occupations of the Kindergarten, hy 
Angeline Brooks ; The Use of Kindergarten Material in the Primary School, hy 
Mrs. A. H. Putnam; The connection of the Kindergarten with the School, hy Mrs. 
Mary IT. Peabody. Well printed on heavy paper, with wood engravings illus- 
trating the chapter on the gifts and occupations of the Kindergarten. 150 pages. 

Price, paper covers, f 0.50 ; cloth, $0.75 

SONGS, GAMES AND RHYMES, 
For the Nursery, Kindergarten and Primary School. 

With notes and suggestions, hy Eudora Lucas Hailmann. In the preface the 
author says : "To parents, kindergartners and primary teachers these songs and 
games are presented with the hope that they will in some measure satisfy the de- 
mand for a wholesome, elevated kind of music, and for words suited to the 
thoughts and feelings of very young children. 

The cultivation of the music sense should begin in earliest childhood, but like 
all beginnings the task is both difficult and delicate. If it be neglected during the 
first few years it is scarcely possible to re-arouse it. To meet this need in earliest 
infancy is the justification for the hand and finger games contained in this book." 

The book contains 211 pieces, classified as follows : Opening Songs, 15 ; Clos- 
ing Songs, 10 ; Songs and Games of the Seasons, 16 ; Weather Songs and Games, 
10; Songs and Games of Animated Nature, 35; Trades and Occupations, 19; 
Marches and Movement Plays, 31 ; Ball Games, 20 ; Finger and Hand Games, 26 ; 
Miscellaneous Games, 30. 169 pages. Price, paper covers, $1.25 ; cloth, $1.75 



BOOKS FOB TEACHEB8. 



SONGS FOE LITTLE CHILDREN. 

A collection of Songs and Games for Kindergarten and Primary Schools. Part 
1. Composed and arranged by Eleanor Smith, with preface by Mrs. Alice Putnam. 

The following are the closing sentences of Mrs. Putnam's preface : — "This book 
is sent out in the hope that it may lead kindergartners and primary teachers to 
look more carefully everyiohere for the right means to develop a right musical feel- 
ing in children. Many kindergartners in Chicago feel gratefully the good re- 
sults of their lessons with Miss Smith, and we hope others of our 'guild' may find 
the same pleasui-e which we have had in these songs." 

Prof. W. L. Tomlins, of Chicago, says : " 'Songs For Little Children' will 
meet a long-felt want in the kindergartens. It is an admirable book, and will un- 
doubtedly attain the success it deserves." 

Miss Betsy Harrison, president of the Chicago Kindergarten Club, says : "We 
Chicago kindergartners feel that Miss Smith has presented a gift to the children 
of our nation well worth our thanks." 

This book contains 84 pieces, divided as folio , / s : Morning Songs, 7 ; Songs of 
the Seasons, 26 ; Gift Songs, 27 ; Marching Songs, j ; Circle Games, 5 ; Trade 
Songs, 4; Miscellaneous, 17; Closing Songs, 3. 109 pages. 

Price, paper, $0.90; cloth, $1,25 
A KINDEEGARTNER'S MANUAL OF DRAWING. 
By N. Moore. 

There is at present a general and renewed interest in the subject of drawing in 
the kindergarten, and Miss Moore, having advanced with all other progressive 
teachers in this line, has almost entirely rewritten the text of her book. It now 
stands foremost in advocating reforms in the Kindergarten drawing, and should 
be in the hands of every kindergartner, as many of them feel that their methods 
in drawing are not up to the advanced demands of the present day. 

The new edition contains 18 large 4to pages of text and 17 full-page lithograph- 
ic plates, comprising a total of 337 separate figures and exercises One volume, 
large 4to. ^ Price, paper fO.50 

SUGGESTIONS FOR GYMNASTIC EXERCISES FOR SCHOOLS. 
By Hellen Clark Sxoazey. 

"It is not a soul, it is not a body that we are training up ; it is a man, and ■we ought not to 
divide him into two parts." — Montaigne. 

This brief manual is designed to furnish the teacher with such information aa 
will insure the safe and healthful introduction of physical training in the lower 
grades of our public schools. 

Miss Swazey's education and experience in anatomy, physiology and light 
gymnastics peculiarly fit her to give the advice and instruction needed by every 
teacher. The Movements and the use of Wooden Dumb-bells, Wands and 
Rings are very clearly explained and fully illustrated by drawings from life. 

Price, in paper covers, $0.15 

Kindergarten and Child-culture Papers.— Papers on Froebel's Kindergar- 
ten, with suggestions on principles and methods of child-culture in different coun- 
tries, revised edition, published from the American Journal of Education. — Henry 
Barnard, LL. D., Editor. 

This work gives a full account of Friedrich August FrcEbel, and the Kinder- 
garten as developed by him and his immediate associates and pupils, and the 
Principles and Practices of Child-culture by eminent educators. The book cov- 
ers the whole subject of which it treats more thoroughly than any other book 
ever published, and, although somewhat expensive, is a profitable investment for 
any Priman^-school teacher. A complete Cyclopedia of the Kindergarten. 800 
pages. Price, ''loth, $3.50 



BOOKS FOB TEACHERS. 



Primary Methods. — A complete and methodical presentation of the use of 
the Kindergarten Material in the work of the Primary School, unfolding a Syste- 
matic Course of Manual Training, in connection with Arithmetic, Geometry, 
Drawing and other school duties. — By W. N. Hailmann, A. M., Superinten- 
dent Public Schools, La Porte, Ind. 

A valuable treatise upon the gifts and occupations employed in the Kinder^ 
garten. The book contains model lessons explaining every detail entering into 
the proper employment of children in "busy work," Counting, Addition and Sub- 
traction, Multiplication and Division, Folding (Square and Circular), Modeling 
(Plastic Clay), Cutting and Mounting, Card-board Work, Fraction Strips, Splits 
or Sticks, Sticks and Peas, Lentils or Dots, The Group Table. 

Each of the chapters is a complete guide to the teacher, for the special kind of 
work treated, and the book cannot fail to g\yQ satisfaction to those who essay to 
accomplish good results in this important department of school work. 

The "new departure of the age" — manual traiisung school — requires for the 
guidance of its followers, in the early grades, just such a book as "Primary 
Methods." 

Professor Hailmann's close association with the interests of the Kindergarten 
System, as editor for many years of the "Kindergarten Messenger," have made 
him the right man to undertake to guide others in the work, and the "new de- 
parture" could not receive more substantial assistance than is given in this book. 
166 pp., Price, cloth, $0.75 

Merry Songs and Games for the use of the Kindergarten, selected and com- 
piled by Clara Beeson Hubbard. Large 4to, full cloth and gilt. Price, $2.00 

Kindergarten Chimes. — ^A collection of songs and games composed and ar- 
ranged for Kindergartens and Primary Schools, by Kate Douglass Wiggin, (Cali- 
fornia Kindergarten Training School, San Francisco) . A handsome book of 110 
pages of songs for little children, with simple piano accompaniments to all the 
pieces, Price, boards, $1.00; cloth, $1.50 

National Kindergarten Songs and Plays. — By Mrs. Louise Pollock, Princi- 
pal of Kindergarten Normal Institute, Washington, D. C. One volume, 12mo. 

Price, boards, $0.50 

Cheerful Echoes. — From the National Kindergarten, for children from three 
to ten years of age. Written and compiled by Mrs. Louise Pollock. One volume, 
12 mo. 72 pages. 

The book is divided into Opening and Closing Songs ; Marching and Eing 
Songs •, Gymnastic Plays ; Ball Games ; Songs of Nature ; Trades ; Miscellaneous. 

The collection contains many gems in words and music. Price, boards, $0.50 

Mother-Play and Nursery Songs. — hy Friedrich Froelel. Fifty engravings 
with notes to mothers, and music for songs. One volume, large 4to, bound. 

Price, cloth, $2.00 

Reminiscences of Friedrich Frcebel. — By Baroness B. Von MarenhoUz-Bulow, 
with a sketch of the life of Froebel by Emily Shirreff, 16 mo. Price, cloth, $1.50 

Kindergarten Culture in the Family and Kindergarten.— JSi/ W. N. 
Hailmann. A complete sketch of Froebel's system of early education, adapted to 
American institutions. For the ues of mothers and teachers. Illustrated. 

Price, cloth, $0.75 

The Use of Stories in the Kindergarten. — By Miss Anna Buckland. 

Price, paper, $0.15 

Rhymes and Tales for the Kindergarten and Nursery. — Collected and 
revised by Alma L. Kriege, with introductory remarks on the value and .mode of 
telling stories to children. .... Price, cloth, gilt edges, $1.00 



BOOKS FOR TEACHEB8. 



Songs fob Little Folks in the Home and in the School.— -By Mrs. W. F. 
Crafts and Miss Jennie B. Merrill Price, boards, $0.35 

Little Pilgrim Songs. — For primary classes and singing in the liome. A new 
collection of sacred and secular songs (including motion songs), together with a 
number of services for anniversary occasions. Arranged by Mrs. W. F. Crafts and 
Hubert P. Main. Price, boards, $0.35 

135 Kindergarten Songs and Games. — By Mrs. Edward Berry and Madame 
Michaelis. , Price, cloth, $0.75 

Music for the Kindergarten, hymns, songs, and Games.— Collected and 
arranged by Elenore Heerwart Price, flexible cloth, $1.25 

Plays and Songs for Kindergarten and Family. — Collected and arranged 
by a Kindergartner Price, paper, $0.50 

Plays for the Kindergarten. — By Henrietta Noa. Music by Ch. J. Eichter. 

Price, paper, $0.80 

Songs, Music and Movement Plays of the Kindergarten. — By Edward 
Wiehe. Quarto, 64 pages of music Price, paper, $2.25 

The Little Diadem, or Little Songs for Little Singers. — 72 pages. 

Price, flexible covers, $0.25 

The Kindergarten Guide. — By Maria Kraus-Boelte and John Kraus. An il- 
lustrated Hand-book designed for the self-instructionof Kindergartner s, mothers, 
and nurses. Seven parts are now published, and others will be furnished when 
issued. 

1. The First and Second Gifts. With 50 illustrations. 

Price, paper, $0.35; cloth, $0.65 

2. The Third., Fourth, Fifth, and Sixth Gifts. With 497 illustrations. 

Price, paper, $0.70; cloth, $1.00 

3. The Seventh Gift (The Tablets). With 554 illustrations. 

Price, paper, $0.50 ; cloth, $0.80 

4. The Eighth Gift {The Connected Slat). The Ninth Gift {Slat-Interlacing). 
The Tenth Gift {Slick-laying). With 509 illustrations. 

Price, paper, $0.70; cloth, $1.00 

5. The Eleventh Gift {Ring-laying). The Twelfth Gift {The Thread Game). 
The Thirteenth Gift {The Point). With 468 illustrations. 

Price, paper, $0.70; cloth, $1.00 
These five numbers can be ordered bound together in one volume. 

Price, by mail, paper covers, $2.00 ; cloth covers, $2.75 

6. The First Occupation {Perforating). The Second Occupation {Sewing-out). 
With 204 illustrations. Price, paper, $0.50; cloth, $0.80 

7. The Third Occupation {Drawing). With 351 illustrations. The Fourth Oc- 
cupation {Coloring and Painting). With 83 chromo lithographed illustrations on 
12 plates. Price, paper, $1.00; cloth, $1.30 



BOOKS IN PREPARATION. 



COLOR IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 

This work treats of the necessity of Teaching Color in the Primary 
Schools, Color Blindness, The Theory of Light, What is Meant by the 
Solar Spectrum, How to Utilize the Spectrum as a Standard of Color, 
The Use of the Rotating Disks, How to Make the Spectrum Standards 
Practical, The Necessity of a Color Nomenclature, The Proper Combina- 
tions of Colors, How to Teach Color in the School-Room with Colored 
Papers and Water Colors. 

It is believed that this book will be found both practical and scientific 
by the great number of teachers who feel that color-teaching is one of the 
educational demands of the times, but who keenly appreciate the difficul- 
ties attending such instruction. " Color In the School-Room" tells what 
material is needed for this sort of work and how to use it, a number of 
perplexing questions regarding the science of color being, meanwhile, 
handled intelligently and helpfully. 

KNIFE WORK IN THE SCHOOL-ROOM. 

A treatise outlining a course of manual training for the upper grammar 
grades which can be conducted in the school-room itself by the ordinary 
teacher, with the simplest tools and at small cost. This book is written 
by the principal of the Springfield, Mass., manual training school and is 
liberally illustrated. 

It is safe to assert that nothing beginning to be as practical as " Knife 
Work In the School-Room" has yet been written on the subject of manual 
training. The teacher who buys the book and follows its directions will 
know just what to do in his or her school-room. It has an introduction 
setting forth the principles on which correct manual training in the public 
schools rests. 

PAPER FOLDING AND GUTTING. 

A manual of work in these occupations for primary grades, by two well- 
known supervisors of drawing. 

MILTON BRADLEY CO., 

Springfield, Mass. 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



030 218 104 4 



